Category: Cognitive Psychology

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Cognitive Psychology Dark Personality Psychology

Why Do Pathological Liars Lie?

M Abdullah Qureshi

Lying is a very common behavior per se. There are various reasons one might choose to lie. Perhaps you do not want to cause trouble with your boss, so you might lie that there no problems at work. Perhaps a young adolescent might lie to his parents to cover up the fact that he was hanging out with his buddies.

Pathological lying is different. Pathological lying occurs even in situations where there is no harm in telling the truth.

I have talked in great detail how one could identify pathological lying behavior. To put it very shortly, pathological lying is the continuous behavior of lying irrespective of the consequences of a situation.

In this article, I will explain why pathological lying occurs in the first place.

Why would a person choose to lie even when there is no discernable gain?

I detail multiple reasons for this behavior. Let’s begin!

Shielding from Cognitive Dissonance

Well, consider something that you believed in since childhood. If that belief were to be violated by some new information, how would you feel?

Very anxious, fearful, depressed.

This is because of cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is the disruption of one’s thoughts when the belief that they held is successfully antagonized or challenged by a new belief or reality. The newer belief seems to be antithetical to the prior belief.

This is not exactly a comfortable situation. Here’s why.

To make room for the new belief, not only is the previous one challenged but many implications of the previous belief no longer seem to have a logical basis. So, there is intense tension of thoughts. It could be that you might not know what to do anymore. And if the belief was a core one, it becomes even harder to accept either of the beliefs.

Cognitive dissonance can be observed in people who, for example, get disfranchised with religion.

So, to stave off cognitive dissonance as much as they can, some people might lie to maintain a maladaptive belief. As this belief cannot stand the test of maturity, or is too painful to handle, a pathological liar will attempt to challenge the competing belief, even if it means foregoing logic.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a mechanism of learning or adopting behaviors by actively influencing an environment. While there is surprisingly sparse research, there is some case-study based evidence that pathological lying can develop in children as the result of their behavior being reinforcing for them.

So, for example, an individual might find that simply denying any wrongdoing, no matter the magnitude, helps them get out of trouble. As a result, they can repeat this behavior in further circumstances.

This is an example of operant conditioning as the individual operates on the environment (by lying) and they receive negative reinforcement (possibility of their punishment decreases). As they have discovered their action to be reinforcing, the individual will practice this behavior again, as it could help them out of tricky situations in the future.

With this, I will now move on to reasons which might lead to pathological lying through indirect ways. Let’s explore further!

Cognitive Distortions

A maladaptive or irrational belief is not based on a logical and balanced assessment of reality. It could be formed by demandingness, as Albert Ellis would have put it. It could be formed by an antagonistic or traumatic event. Whatever the case may be, irrational beliefs are distorted versions of the perception of reality.

One class of agents which form such irrational beliefs is of cognitive distortions.

To define very simply, cognitive distortions are elements of subjective interpretations of reality which subjectively distort the content or information of one’s beliefs about the reality.

In the case of pathological lying, one could think along certain cognitive distortions. For example, an individual could view the other person as an enemy, engaging in dichotomous thinking (all or none thinking), even when they are relatively neutral in their stance towards the person. As a result, the individual, under the influence of dichotomous thinking – which is a cognitive distortion – could start fabricating information out of paranoia or dislike for the other individual.

Psychiatric Disorders

The psychiatric disorders which contribute the most to pathological lying are usually those that are associated with impulse control. These are usually substance use disorders, gambling disorder, or kleptomania. On the other hand, pathological lying can also be found in individuals with personality disorders – particularly Cluster B personality disorders.

If a person has an impulse control problem, they might try to lie in order to maintain their condition. For example, if one has a substance use disorder, they might lie to their physician about things which could lead to desirable outcomes. They could exaggerate their experience of pain to receive more painkillers. However, this can also fall under the ambit of malingering, which is a psychiatric diagnosis.

Another example could be of lying in personality disorders. An individual with narcissistic personality disorder might lie compulsively in situations where they wish to portray a grand image of themselves.

Much like cognitive distortions, psychiatric disorders might contribute indirectly to pathological lying.

Conclusion

Cognitive dissonance, conditioning, distortion and psychiatric issues, all are interconnected phenomena. All of these aspects can be seen contributing to the incidence of pathological behavior. This is no different in the case of pathological lying. If one follows the psychoanalytic perspective strictly, this behavior could originate from one’s childhood experiences which might be traumatic or disorienting.

Safe to say, pathological lying is not a fun condition. It can disrupt one’s life greatly, causing major problems at work, home, school or any other setting which involves communication. In fact, people who have this issue might find themselves being socially isolated from their protective circle. This, as mentioned earlier, could lead to an even more intensification of their compulsive lying behavior.

If you believe that you or someone you know might have a major issue with it, perhaps speaking to a mental health professional could be the best way to ease your discomfort.

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Cognitive Psychology Psychological Interventions Psychological Tips

Psychoeducation (REBT): How ‘Musts’ or Demandingness Lead to Behavioral Disorders

Imagine a scenario where something unexpected happens. This situation stresses you out immensely. You do not know how this problem will resolve, but you want it to just go away. Someone must help you. The event that distressed you must not happen again. You must resolve it quickly.

In short, the world must comply with what you want. Or else, things will be in disarray. Or else, you cannot be satisfied or be happy.

This is what demandingness or ‘musturbation’ is. And no, it definitely isn’t a typo!

Musturbation is a colorful term, coined by clinical psychologist Albert Ellis, as one of the major reasons for psychological disturbances that lead to behavioral disorders. This forms one of the bases of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT).

In this essay, I will attempt to show you how demandingness or musturbation can lead to major psychological issues.

Types of ‘Musts’

It is first important to understand the major types of musts in demandingness. These are related to:

  • Beliefs about oneself
  • Beliefs about others
  • Beliefs about the world.

This is directly parallel to Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Triad.

Musts about Oneself

Often times, we have certain demands on ourselves. We expect that we would be able to perform certain tasks or attain certain consequences. However, sometimes, these demands are not reasonable. They could be beyond our capabilities at a time. It could be that our circumstances might make it impossible to pursue a goal.

In these cases, if we continue to believe that we must accomplish something and realistically, it is not even a little probable, we can identify these beliefs as ‘musts’ about ourselves.

Musts about Others

At times, we might expect things from others. We might expect our parents to be caring, loving and willing to go out of their way for us. We might expect our friends to do so as well.

However, we might be overlooking the fact that they might simply not consent to do that.

When this consent, based on others’ personal motivations, does not help us fulfill what we want fulfilled, there we can see our musts about others.

Musts about the World

We often think in cosmic terms. For example, we might think that the world is favorable or unfavorable to us. We might also expect that social norms and rules should be a certain way. Particularly in the way that satisfies us physically, psychologically or ideologically.

But, here, imagine that people violate norms regularly. If we are not able to understand why people do so, it is possible that we have some unrealistic demands of the world. These could be demands of a completely honest system.

We could also demand that the world is always fair. But we do understand that the world probably isn’t fair.

Here, demandingness could lead to helplessness.

Having understood the types of demands that we might have, it is now time to see the direct link between demandingness and major psychological issues.

Demandingness is Irrational

Psychiatric disorders are characterized by psychological disturbances. These disturbances interact significantly with biological mechanisms involved in our experience. These mechanisms range from how we perceive things after the process of sensation, to our physiological arousal before, during and/or after an event.

Musturbation or demandingness, is an individual’s tendency to unrealistically demand the factors around them to obey the individual’s rules and wishes.

In reality, we cannot control others. We can bind them with personal, social or legal contracts, but we cannot completely control the way they think or behave.

Thus, our demands that things or situations remain exactly how we please are irrational.

Irrational beliefs frequently come into friction with reality and this causes psychological distress. This is often a precipitating factor of emotional and behavioral disorders.

Demandingness Can Lead to the Downward Spiral of Emotions

Demandingness also leads to higher feelings of stress. In fact, it doesn’t just increase in stress to oneself, but in their family as well. Stress, in turn, can manifest through milder symptoms of anxiety, panic or depression.

Further ‘musts’ can materialize during these symptoms as they can lower one’s mood even more or make them anxious and hyper vigilant about what they are going through. One might attribute these symptoms to their personal characteristics or to external events completely.

So, they could hold themselves completely responsible for what they are going through. On the flip side, they can hold others responsible for it. Neither of these two beliefs or thoughts is based on reality.

Hence, demandingness and stress could interact with each other and create maladaptive thoughts and even beliefs. This could, in turn, cause more negative interpretations of stressful events, heightening the irrational beliefs, emotions and behaviors.

And thus, demandingness leads an individual into a downward spiral of emotions.

Conclusion

Demands that are unrealistic are far less likely to materialize. Unfortunately, the fact that they do not materialize does not usually convince us that these demands are irrational.

Rather, a constant habit or thought processing based on irrational demands could lead us to make alternative demands that are irrational as well. This thought-system is what can be identified in many of the psychiatric disorders. While Ellis understood that we are biological beings and there is a biological basis of these mental conditions, what usually precipitates or maintains them are our irrational beliefs.

If you find that you might have problems similar to this, it could be that you are simply placing demands that are too high. If you do not know how, try talking to a professional about it. Remember, there are ways to make your experiences better.

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Brain Health Cognitive Psychology Psychiatric Disorders

Basic Psychological Techniques to Control Social Anxiety

M Abdullah Qureshi

Social events are supposed to be fun.

Going out with your friends, going on a date with your partner or even going to weddings can be exciting. Research has also shown that people who are high in sociability tend to have better health outcomes.

However, not all people find social interactions to be fulfilling. While introverts are generally healthy, a subset of people experience anxiety in social situations. Often this anxiety is an indication of a deeper psychological issue. People with social anxiety disorder (SAD), which is also called social phobia, are constantly afraid of and avoid social situations because they think other people will judge them. Social anxiety can be very upsetting, and people who have it may avoid social or performance situations, which can affect their school, job, and social life.

I have treated people with Social Anxiety Disorder and other social issues. It is not at all a pleasant condition.

But there are many behavioral and cognitive techniques that can overcome these issues.

Do you want to take control of your social anxiety?

Do you want to be social without negative thoughts all the time?

In this essay, I will outline three of the major techniques that you can use to get rid of your social anxiety. As a reminder, I will add that if you believe that you have a major issue with social anxiety, please consult a clinician. There is no harm in doing so.

With that out of the way, let’s see how you can take control of your social anxiety!

Cognitive Restructuring

Our first point is about addressing our cognitions.

Imagine a situation where all your friends are having a lot of fun. But during that gathering, a friend of yours says something which appears to be hurtful. However, he does not seem to notice. He keeps enjoying with the group.

But your mood has changed completely. Suddenly, you feel conscious about yourself. And that just sucks the fun out of everything.

If you find yourself in situations where others’ judgments seem to affect you more deeply, you might have major issues with social anxiety.

The cognitive triad can be used to explain this. When we find ourselves unable to take control of our negative thoughts about us, others and the world, our mood deteriorates. Unfortunately, in social settings this mood can be far more hurtful to us.

Cognitive restructuring is, at its core, re-evaluating your thoughts about a situation using all the evidence that is available.

It could be that perhaps your initial evaluation of your friend’s comments was too harsh. Perhaps the initial evaluation did not take many things into consideration. For example, it could be that he says these things to everyone. Or maybe he said that as a passing comment.

It could also be that people in general do not say many things personally. They do not generally think much before commenting. In fact, much of what people say could be a result of projection of their own insecurities.

So, if you re-evaluate the situation following a similar line of reasoning, you will find that your thoughts might change about the entire event. Perhaps the intensity might lower significantly. In fact, you could even start feeling bad about that friend.

We have understood how adaptive thoughts and beliefs could treat social anxiety. But social anxiety is also based on our continuous habits of thinking in social situations.

This means that going through those adverse situations could be crucial.

With this, I will move on to another effective intervention.

Exposure

One of the unfortunate products of social anxiety is that one might stop being social. They might avoid social events, birthdays, re-union parties, hang-outs, and trips – many things that can actually make you feel really good.

Perhaps the most negative consequence of social anxiety could be that you do not develop the right coping mechanisms.

Being exposed to the situations we fear the most can have positive consequences that we might not have expected. In fact, a study demonstrated that exposure to social mishaps could be used to treat people with social anxiety!

While treating patients with Social Anxiety Disorder, I found this technique to be particularly useful. New ways of providing exposure can be through virtual exposure as well.

Thanks for technology!

Exposure is often paired with another intervention. Since symptoms of anxiety can also include our physiological arousal, it is important at times to relax our body.

Relaxation

Anxiety has many symptoms. Many of these symptoms are actually psycho-physiological. These features could involve

  • Increased heartbeat or palpitations
  • Nausea or vomiting
  • Profuse sweating
  • Dizziness
  • Pins and needles
  • Tightening of muscles

These symptoms indicate a period of heightened physiological arousal. If you find that your experience with these symptoms is severe, consult your clinician. However, tutorials for some basic relaxation exercises are also available online.

Body relaxation is not a standalone treatment. But research indicates that it can help you control your physiological symptoms effectively. It certainly can make you feel calmer and more in touch with your surroundings. The rule goes that the less agitated or physiologically aroused you feel during anxiety, the better your outcomes.

Conclusion

M Abdullah Qureshi

Social anxiety is a debilitating condition to have. It stops you from doing many healthy activities. However, to say that there is no end to it would be wrong.

The 3 techniques talked about in this article are very effective ways of controlling social anxiety. But remember, these are just 3 of many other psychological tactics that you can use. In fact, these are the basic psychological techniques that have been used for decades.

Newer psychotherapies and techniques have emerged over the years since then.

However, remember that if you have severe symptoms of social anxiety, address them properly. Talk to a health consultant. You can also ask for help from your peers or social circle.

If you would like to add anything, or you have a question, feel free to write it in the comments section below.

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Cognitive Psychology Dark Personality Psychology

What is the Main Character Syndrome?

what is main character syndrome

Written by Abdullah Qureshi

Have you ever felt that you are the hero/heroine of your story? Do you feel as if everything in your world has an effect on your ‘story’?

Or, let me put it this way: have you ever felt that you are completely different from everyone around you?

If you have felt this, then chances are that you have ‘main character syndrome’. The main character syndrome is an unofficial term used for the belief that one is the main character of life.

Right there, as a clinical psychologist I am reminded about the concept of fantastical thinking. However, rather than approach the main character syndrome as a disorder of cognition, I will be more nuanced.

By the method of psychoanalysis, I will attempt to show the features and progression of the main character syndrome.

Symptoms of Main Character Syndrome

People at large understand that they are in some ways the main character of their life.

However, a person with main character syndrome tends to go further than that. To be specific, the main character syndrome is the belief that one is the main character of not only their own life, but of the lives of the people around them as well.

There are many parallels between this syndrome and various personality disorders. In particular, there appear to be 6 symptoms.

  • Impairment in empathy
  • Intense relationships
  • A tendency to enjoy attention
  • Self-related fantasies
  • A feeling of superiority
  • Dramatic thinking

Oddly, all of these 6 symptoms can be found in Cluster B personality disorders of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Psychiatric Disorders (DSM) V (APA, 2022). These disorders are related to antisocial, narcissistic, emotionally unstable and histrionic traits.

However, I argue in this essay that the symptoms of the main character syndrome are at a sub-clinical level. This means that these symptoms can be found in individuals who do not have major psychological disorders.

So, why isn’t the main character syndrome harmful in itself?

Psychoanalysis of the Main Character

Archetype and Personality

If you understand the archetype of ‘The Hero’, you understand the depth of the main character syndrome. According to Carl Jung (2012), the Swiss psychologist named the Hero as part of the ‘Self’ archetype. The Hero represents the struggles and trials of an individual character as he/she moves towards a grand goal. The Hero already has a view of the world that he is very important.

Moreover, there is a strong element of ‘fantasy.’

I hypothesize here that individuals with this syndrome are also high in openness to fantasy.

The main character fantasizes the life he would have dependently or independently of the goals that he might achieve eventually.

Motivation

If you analyze yourself, you will find that you have certain desires. Clark Hull (1937), an American psychologist, pointed out that we have a psychic drive to attain our desires. To reduce this drive, we attempt to move towards a certain goal. This, he said, was ‘motivation.’

Motivation underlies the story of the Hero. He has high ambitions to follow because he has goals which are idealistic. Since he also can fantasize and imagine very vividly, he can translate this fantasy to others around him. And thus, his goals become very attractive – not just to him, but to the people around him too.

Relationships

By focusing on himself, the Hero, in some ways, foregoes the deep emotional connection that he has with others.

But, to a main character, if he has a generally adaptive view of the world, the people around him also represent ‘worthy’ characters in his life.

So, while his empathy is impaired, the Hero maintains some emotional connections.

The relationships might be intense, since the main character takes many things personally and could have overly dramatic reactions. But this is not because the main character is inherently malicious (there is no such thing as inherently malicious). Rather it is because he ascribes a high value to his goals and beliefs.

This, obviously, has a darker side as well.

Conflicts

Suppose that an individual with the main character syndrome has had a tumultuous childhood, or early life. This individual could have distorted views about violence, aggression and morality in general. As a result, they might end up harming themselves, or the people around them

I argue here that this is the case in cluster B personality disorders.

In fact, even if the beliefs of an individual are not antisocial, he/she can still end up hurting others.

Death of the Hero

The ‘Hero complex’ does not carry on for the entirety of his life. According to Joseph Campbell (1987), at a certain point, the Hero experiences ‘ego death.’ This is the point where the Hero complex is resolved.

However, if an individual is reinforced for his/her main character syndrome, it does not die until the reinforcement ends. This could happen in the case of people who acquire affluence based on their drive.

In some cases, it could be that an individual never ceases to move out of the main character syndrome. This can be seen in individuals who just cannot seem to forget small bits of evidence of success they have attained.

It can be found in celebrities, public figures and even antisocial personalities.

A significant number of people who are successful have main character syndrome.

Examples of Main Character Syndrome

I offer no diagnosis here.

However, I can comment on features of the main character syndrome in certain people.

After all, many famous figures have reported feeling the same way. Take, for example, The Weeknd, who mostly sings about experiences of his own (whether real or imagined). If you haven’t heard The Weeknd, do check out his Dawn FM album. I believe that it is a great album to enjoy both musically and psychologically!

One can also find main character features in opinionated athletes. This is in the case of Mohammad Amir, a Pakistani cricketer. Amir espouses his opinions on cricketers as if these opinions are very insightful (even in cases they might not be). Moreover, he finds it easy to communicate with other cricketers as equals. He also appears charismatic but polarizing.

On the other hand, main character syndrome can also cause a person an undue amount of problems. For example, if you look at Charles Manson and his interviews, you will find his beliefs to be very idiosyncratic. This allowed him to manipulate his ‘followers’ into committing heinous crimes.

Conclusion

The main character syndrome can be, in some ways, used synonymously with the Hero syndrome, or Hero complex.

It is a useful syndrome. People who have it are usually charismatic and opinionated.

However, one must remain cognizant that they are not the only main character in the world. This insight is necessary if an individual wishes to not hurt others. If this insight is reached, the main character syndrome can be a powerful motivator.

It can also be looked at as an indicator of a dynamic personality.

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev.).
  • Campbell’s, J. (1987). The hero’s journey.
  • Hull, C. L. (1937). Mind, mechanism, and adaptive behavior. Psychological Review, 44(1), 1.
  • Jung, C. G. (2012). Four archetypes:(From vol. 9, part 1 of the collected works of CG Jung) (Vol. 29). Princeton University Press.
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Cognitive Psychology

Overview of The Cognitive Triad

Written by Abdullah Qureshi

Aaron Beck was one of the first people to say that the way people think about things can cause negative emotional experiences. In fact, the way people think about and process personal information can maintain this depressive state.

In particular, Beck’s (1979) cognitive theory says that the cognitive triad is a key process that makes depressed symptoms worse.

This concept is a three-part system made up of bad views of the self, the world, and the future.

In this article, I will attempt to describe the cognitive triad using both negative and positive views.

Structure of the Cognitive Triad

One of Beck’s most important ideas is that cognitive mental illness are caused by three bad views about regarding one’s circumstances.

These three categories are shown below:

The Cognitive Triad

People with negative views of the self think they are not good enough, worthy, or loveable. People with negative views of the world think that the world and other people are unfair and getting in the way of their goals. Lastly, having a bad view of the future means thinking that it will be hard and that the problems you are having now will last forever.  

On the other hand, some people may have a positive view of themselves, the world, and the future. This is called the positive cognitive triad, and it makes them happier, more satisfied with their life, and less likely to become depressed.

To put it another way, being strong helps people think positively. They have a positive view about themselves, the world, and the future. This in turn improves their health and makes them feel less stressed.

Views About Oneself

Negative

A bad view of the self is a trait of many illnesses and feelings. These conditions are obviously not healthy, such as depression or anxiety. People who are sad think they are flawed, inadequate, and unworthy. Tarlow and Haaga (1996) confirmed a link between having a bad view of oneself and having negative feelings in general. This backs up what the older and newer literature indicates.

People with more frequent negative states tend to have more negative views of themselves.

Positive

It is said that resilient people are self-efficacious, bold, and driven (Wagnild & Young, 1990). People with these traits are more likely to talk positively to themselves. So, this improves their self-image and makes them more independent. People who are strong have a good attitude about themselves. This attitude makes them look for and enjoy situations that make them feel good about themselves (Walsh & Banaji, 1997). In turn, they improve their mental health.

Views About the World

Negative

When someone is feeling down, they start to see the world in a bad light. For instance, people who are sad are unhappy with their current life and think that everyone is expecting too much from them. This indicates that they view the world having too many hardships. Moreover, they could perceive themselves as inferior to many people in their surroundings. This connects views about the self to the view of the world as well.

Positive

Conversely, a positive view of the world is common among people who are highly resilient (Parr et al., 1998). These people want to get back on their feet after problems and move on. People who have a positive view of the world are better able to see chances in tough situations and come up with ways to solve problems (Wang, 2009).

So, being able to think straight during tough circumstances makes them less prone to depression.

Views About The Future

Negative

People who have major mental problems might not be optimistic about the future. When someone is sad, they do not usually believe they can achieve their goals. According to a study by Leondari et al. (1998), these ideas about the future self might make it harder for students to do well in school.

However, having views of the future that are too positive could be a major issue as well.

Positive

Research shows that people who are strong are sure in their ability to see the future (Klohnen, 1996). For example, Zaleski et al. (1998) found that college students with a lot of hope are less affected by the bad effects of worry and have fewer health problems as a result. Moreover, they are likely to accept self-agentic talk, such as “I can do this” and “I am not going to be stopped” (Snyder et al., 1998).
According to past studies, people who have a lot of hope are better at fixing problems. Mak et al. (2011) say that they are more likely to take on tasks and use active coping techniques instead of passive-avoidant ones. Because of this, they are more likely to keep going when things get tough or stressful.

Having said this, there are issues with viewing the future too positively as well. For instance, Maden et al. (2016) found that employees who had higher positive evaluations of their future were less satisfied than those who had less positive views.

This could show how having unrealistic positive expectations of the world could negatively impact us.

Final Evaluation

Even though it is very important, it is still not clear what the theory and empirical state of the cognitive triad is. On the one hand, many theories say there is only one dimension. In other words, the triad’s three parts don’t really exist as three separate things; they combine. So, the cognitive triangle describes how people think about the self and two specific parts of the self: the future and the world (McIntosh & Fischer, 2000).

Beck (1979) acknowledged this quandary. However, he said that despite this correlation, the cognitive triad is still useful for clinical work.

Some studies found that negative views of the self and the future were most strongly linked to depressive symptoms in teens (Braet et al., 2015; Timbremont & Braet, 2006). Other studies also looked at the role of negative views of the world in kids and teens (Epkins, 2000; Jacobs & Joseph, 1997).

There is one broad consensus: our beliefs significantly affect our experience.

This is one of the core curative processes in psychotherapy.

References

Beck, A. T. (1979). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. Penguin.

Braet, C., Wante, L., Van Beveren, M. L., & Theuwis, L. (2015). Is the cognitive triad a clear marker of depressive symptoms in youngsters?. European child & adolescent psychiatry, 24, 1261-1268.

Epkins, C. C. (2000). Cognitive specificity in internalizing and externalizing problems in community and clinic-referred children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(2), 199-208.

Haaga, D. A., Dyck, M. J., & Ernst, D. (1991). Empirical status of cognitive theory of depression. Psychological bulletin, 110(2), 215.

Jacobs, L., & Joseph, S. (1997). Cognitive Triad Inventory and its association with symptoms of depression and anxiety in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 22(5), 769-770.

Klohnen, E. C. (1996). Conceptual analysis and measurement of the construct of ego-resiliency. Journal of personality and social psychology, 70(5), 1067.

Leondari, A., Syngollitou, E., & Kiosseoglou, G. (1998). Academic achievement, motivation and future selves. Educational studies, 24(2), 153-163.

Maden, C., Ozcelik, H., & Karacay, G. (2016). Exploring employees’ responses to unmet job expectations: The moderating role of future job expectations and efficacy beliefs. Personnel Review, 45(1), 4-28.

McIntosh, C. N., & Fischer, D. G. (2000). Beck’s cognitive triad: One versus three factors. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 32(3), 153.

Parr, G. D., Montgomery, M., & DeBell, C. (1998). Flow theory as a model for enhancing student resilience. Professional School Counseling, 1(5), 26-31.

Snyder, C. R., LaPointe, A. B., Jeffrey Crowson, J., & Early, S. (1998). Preferences of high-and low-hope people for self-referential input. Cognition & Emotion, 12(6), 807-823.

Tarlow, E. M., & Haaga, D. A. (1996). Negative self-concept: Specificity to depressive symptoms and relation to positive and negative affectivity. Journal of Research in Personality, 30(1), 120-127.

Timbremont, B., & Braet, C. (2006). Brief report: A longitudinal investigation of the relation between a negative cognitive triad and depressive symptoms in youth. Journal of Adolescence, 29(3), 453-458.

Wagnild, G., & Young, H. M. (1990). Resilience among older women. Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 22(4), 252-255.

Walsh, W. A., & Banaji, M. R. (1997). The Collective Self a. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 818(1), 193-214.

Wang, J. (2009). A study of resiliency characteristics in the adjustment of international graduate students at American universities. Journal of Studies in International Education, 13(1), 22-45.

Zaleski, E. H., Levey-Thors, C., & Schiaffino, K. M. (1998). Coping mechanisms, stress, social support, and health problems in college students. Applied Developmental Science, 2(3), 127-137.