Category: Dark Personality Psychology

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Dark Personality Psychology Blog

Reverse Psychology: What Is It, and Does It Work?

reverse psychology what is it and how it works

Introduction

Have you ever been told not to do something, only to feel an overwhelming urge to do it anyway? That’s reverse psychology in action! This clever psychological technique plays on human nature, often influencing people’s decisions without them even realizing it. But what exactly is reverse psychology, how does it work, and is it truly effective? Let’s dive into this fascinating psychological strategy and uncover its secrets.

What Is Reverse Psychology?

Reverse psychology is particularly effective because it taps into an individual’s natural desire to assert control over their decisions. When people perceive that their ability to make choices is being threatened, they subconsciously work to reclaim their autonomy. This technique is often used subtly in different aspects of life, influencing behavior without the individual realizing they are being guided toward a specific outcome. It is especially useful when dealing with strong-willed individuals who are more likely to resist direct instructions.

One of the reasons reverse psychology works so well is that it plays on emotions, particularly pride and competitiveness. In the example of the child and the messy room, the challenge sparks a competitive instinct, making the child more likely to engage in the desired behavior. This approach can also be seen in education, where teachers might say, “This math problem is really difficult; only the best students can solve it.” Students who seek validation or recognition may feel motivated to prove they are capable. The same principle applies to workplace environments, where employees might be encouraged to outperform expectations if they believe a task is too difficult or unattainable.

Similarly, in social situations, reverse psychology can be a powerful tool for persuasion. If someone is hesitant to try something new, framing it as something exclusive or beyond their reach can make it more appealing. By carefully crafting suggestions, individuals can encourage desired behaviors while allowing the other person to feel in control of their choices. This technique is also commonly used in relationships, where making something seem unavailable or unattainable can increase its perceived value. Whether in parenting, education, the workplace, or social interactions, reverse psychology remains a subtle yet powerful way to influence human behavior.

The Science Behind Reverse Psychology

Reverse psychology is rooted in a concept called psychological reactance theory, proposed by Jack Brehm in 1966. According to this theory, when people feel their freedom to make choices is threatened, they experience psychological discomfort and strive to regain control by doing the opposite of what they are being told.

This is why teenagers often rebel when parents enforce strict rules. The more someone feels pressured, the stronger their urge to do the opposite. This phenomenon is not limited to just teenagers; adults also exhibit similar behavior when they perceive that their autonomy is being challenged.

For example, in a workplace setting, if an employee is micromanaged and constantly told what to do, they may resist or intentionally perform tasks in their own way to regain a sense of control.

Psychological reactance also influences consumer behavior. When customers are told that a particular product is “exclusive” or “not available to everyone,” they develop a greater desire for it. The sense of limitation makes them feel like their choice is being restricted, prompting them to act in ways that restore their perceived freedom.

Case Study: Reverse Psychology in Action

A famous experiment on psychological reactance was conducted by Dr. Sharon Brehm. In her study, young children were presented with two toys, but one was placed behind a barrier. Predictably, the children showed more interest in the toy that was restricted, reinforcing the idea that people desire what they cannot have.

This phenomenon has been observed in multiple real-world situations. For instance, in relationships, when one person suddenly becomes unavailable or disinterested, the other may start pursuing them more aggressively. This explains why playing “hard to get” is often seen as an effective dating strategy.

Similarly, in political settings, when governments impose bans or restrictions on certain activities, people may be more likely to engage in them. For example, strict censorship laws may encourage individuals to seek out banned content, not necessarily because they need it, but because they feel their right to access information is being controlled.

How the Brain Reacts to Reverse Psychology

Neuroscientific studies have shown that when people feel their autonomy is being challenged, their brain’s amygdala, responsible for emotional responses, becomes highly active. This triggers a defensive reaction, increasing the likelihood of resistance. Additionally, the prefrontal cortex, responsible for decision-making and reasoning, also plays a role by weighing the risk and reward of rebelling against instructions.

In simpler terms, when someone is told they can’t do something, their brain instinctively prioritizes that action, making it seem even more appealing. This neural interplay explains why reverse psychology is such a powerful tool when used strategically.

The Role of Dopamine in Reactance

Dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with motivation and pleasure, is another factor in psychological reactance. Studies suggest that the anticipation of regaining control or proving someone wrong triggers a dopamine release, making the action feel rewarding. This chemical response strengthens a person’s resolve to resist control and do the opposite of what is suggested.

Real-World Implications of Psychological Reactance

Understanding the neuroscience behind reverse psychology can help professionals in fields like marketing, therapy, and leadership craft more effective communication strategies.

An example

In therapy, counselors might use strategic reverse psychology techniques to encourage behavioral change in resistant clients.

In marketing, brands can create desire by subtly limiting access to products, making them more desirable due to perceived scarcity.

Where Is Reverse Psychology Used?

Reverse psychology isn’t just a fun trick used in everyday conversations; it has practical applications in various fields, including:

1. Parenting

Parents often use reverse psychology to encourage children to make better choices. For instance, instead of forcing a child to eat vegetables, a parent might say, “You probably wouldn’t like this broccoli; it’s only for grown-ups.” This makes the child curious and more likely to try it.

2. Marketing and Sales

Advertisers and marketers frequently use reverse psychology to influence consumer behavior. Limited-time offers like “Only 10 items left in stock!” create urgency and make people more likely to buy a product. Some brands even use anti-advertising, like when a company says, “This product isn’t for everyone,” making people more intrigued.

A well-known example is Apple’s marketing strategy. Instead of begging customers to buy their products, they create a sense of exclusivity, making people feel privileged to own an Apple device.

3. Relationships and Social Interactions

Ever noticed how people sometimes want something more when they’re told they can’t have it? Reverse psychology can work in relationships too. For instance, instead of begging someone to stay, saying “I understand if you want to leave” might make them reconsider their decision.

4. Workplace and Leadership

Managers sometimes use reverse psychology to motivate employees. For example, a boss might say, “I’m not sure if this project is possible in such a short time,” which could challenge a determined employee to prove them wrong by completing it efficiently.

5. Education and Teaching

Teachers sometimes use reverse psychology to encourage students to study. For example, telling students that a particular topic is too difficult for them may push them to work harder to prove otherwise. This method can be particularly effective in motivating students who are naturally competitive or curious.

Reverse Psychology in Media and Entertainment

Reverse psychology is widely used in media, films, and advertising campaigns to engage audiences and shape narratives.

Movies and TV shows often use reverse psychology to increase curiosity. If a film is banned or labeled controversial, people become more eager to watch it.

Music and book industries sometimes use forbidden content as a way to boost sales. Songs labeled “explicit” often attract higher viewership due to curiosity.

A famous example of reverse psychology in media was the Blair Witch Project (1999). The filmmakers marketed the movie as a real-life found footage documentary, making audiences desperate to uncover the truth, which led to its massive success.

Ethical Considerations of Reverse Psychology

While reverse psychology can be a useful tool, it must be used ethically. Manipulating someone into making a decision against their will or best interest can be harmful. If used too frequently, it can erode trust in personal and professional relationships.

An example

In therapy, professionals must be cautious when applying reverse psychology. If a client recognizes the manipulation, they may feel betrayed.

In marketing, companies must ensure they are not misleading consumers in ways that exploit their psychological tendencies unethically.

To use reverse psychology ethically, it should be employed with positive intentions and in a way that respects the other person’s autonomy.

Conclusion

Reverse psychology is a fascinating psychological tool that plays on human nature and our need for autonomy. When used correctly, it can be an effective strategy in parenting, marketing, relationships, leadership, and media. However, it should be used responsibly to maintain trust and ethical integrity.

It’s important to remember that while reverse psychology can be powerful, it’s not a one-size-fits-all solution. The key is to use it wisely, ethically, and in the right situations.

Have you ever used reverse psychology successfully? Share your experiences in the comments below

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Dark Personality Psychology Personality Psychology

The Main Character Syndrome: A Philosophical Defence

the main character syndrome

Everything that we know about the world is filtered through our own subjective lens. Our trials and tribulations are unique. Our experiences might hold some similarities with others. However, they are distinct and separate from many of the people around us.

Even our siblings do not share the same views about everything. This reality is partly what causes the main character syndrome.

However, many of us are aware that we are not the only ones facing challenges very similar to us. Rather, every person we know has experienced almost the same spectrum of emotions as us.

But…

Plato posits the idea that some people are born different. And if they are cultivated in a certain way, they are the ones who are best suited to be leaders.

And is it not true?

I argue that it is desirable. But I am not sure if it is true.

A person with the main character syndrome, however, would agree with Plato. This person would believe that his/her goals in life are higher than others. This person would argue that they are destined to achieve ‘greatness’ in some way.

As most things in life, there is a positive aspect and a negative aspect to this thought.

Higher Goals in Life

Everyone’s goals are important to them.

But there still are goals that have a higher probability of making life better in some way for a large number of people.

You can either do it for the people around you. Or you can do it for yourself. In both cases, if one sets a high ceiling for themselves, there are chances you will be changing entire lives.

For example, Isaac Newton simply became curious about whether the speed at which the apple fell from the tree to the ground could be calculated, replicated and whether this rate was universal.

And he came upon the Law of Gravitation!

The goal does not have to address a global problem. But it is about solving a significant, functional problem. If it is a significant enough problem, even if you are doing it for yourself, you can help a lot of people!  

Belief in One’s Abilities

A clear positive of the main character syndrome is belief in one’s ability.

As social media grows in power with each passing day, we become even more embroiled in what we cannot do. According to a study, social media usage is linked to thinking that most problems in your life are caused because there is something wrong with you.

The main character syndrome can help you look on the other side.

I am bound to have a major impact on the world.

While the thought is not completely rational, it does provide you an opportunity to use your strengths.

Moreover, belief in possibilities can also reinforce you by itself. The higher goal that you have and the skills you develop along the way, all point to the confirmation that you are probably going to do something great.

There is obviously a mature way of looking at that.

But, what’s the point? The concept of destiny is in itself a motivator.  

Tendency to Improve

Research has indicated that grandiose narcissism is positively related to openness to change. That is, in order to improve one’s stature, grandiose narcissists can adapt to newer situations and skills.

When you are the main character, everything in your life is there to build your character. You are going to have entire character arcs and ultimately, you will get to the things you always wanted.

Or that’s basically what we think anyways.

Some important characters in your life fire you up. Some teach you important lessons. Yet others throw obstacles your way.

Being the main character that you are, you grow through it all. And you prove to your friends, family, the naysayers and the supporters that you truly are a force to reckon with.

This is actually a very useful approach to life.

Well, as long as you demonstrate enough grit.

Conclusion

The utility of any philosophy can be counted on how good it can either explain the world or improve it. For that reason, the main character syndrome can be a very positive condition for one to have. While it might not explain the world completely, it can make a person feel important in their life. They might actually end up doing a lot of good because of that.

However, there is always the danger of some event eventually knocking a person out of this mindset. Worse yet, such an event might knock them out of the positive part of this protagonist syndrome.

Whatever the case maybe, there are many positives to be gained from the main character syndrome.

Hell, even I might consider it!

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Dark Personality Psychology Personality Psychology

The Positives of Machiavellianism

Positives of Machiavellianism

Classically, Machiavellianism has been seen as a negative trait. To define it briefly, Machiavellianism is a tendency towards intentionally and strategically manipulating others to gain and keep power and control. It is also a part of the Dark Tetrad traits of personality.

However, is there nothing positive to be gleaned from Machiavellianism?

I argue that there are small snippets of lessons that we might learn from this Dark Tetrad trait.

Navigating Through Organizations

In unstructured organizations, Machs seem to have an edge. They do best when they have less management oversight, less regulations, and greater decision-making authority. While this is not an ideal environment – it does show that Machiavellians can navigate through and perhaps benefit from work environments in which there is less discipline.

Moreover, if the individual displays some genuine sincerity, there are higher chances of professional success. Not only that, another aspect of Machiavellianism, ‘planfulness’ also can be beneficial for one’s success. Some research has also indicated that people high in this trait have better political skills.

Political skills, while often considered undesirable, do predict career success in certain situations. This is because workers who possess strong political skills may be able to manage their staff more effectively than through management techniques

Furthermore, Machiavellians tend to do better in marketing occupations, somewhat. Their expertise or confidence while promoting a certain product or service could be invaluable here.

However, there is an important caveat here.

According to Zettler and Solga (2013), work performance and Machiavellianism share a complex relationship. Having a high Machiavellianism level might improve work performance in the short term by creating positive initial impressions or a positive social reputation.

But in the long run, these advantages are countered by manipulative and cynical interpersonal interactions.

Manipulation with Low Cost

The belief in using manipulation to accomplish one’s goals in the workplace, when required, is known as organizational Machiavellianism. People who are at ease taking advantage of others and do it when it suits them are known as organizational Machiavellians.

Manipulation does not always have to be at the cost of the other person.

Instead, people who have high Machiavellian tendencies may also be very flexible and courteous; they are not always vengeful, cruel, or callous.

“(Monarchs) ought, at suitable seasons of the year, entertain the people with festivals and shows” (Machiavelli, p. 61).

Such conduct obviously comes across as courteous and accommodating.

As said earlier, manipulation done with genuine regard might actually portray the individual in a better light.

All without using deceit!

Learning Lessons from the Past

An important part of Machiavellianism is not repeating mistakes of the past. Also, incorporating positive points used previously can only increase your chances for success.

“… as to the mental training of which we have spoken, a prince should read histories, and in these should note the actions of great men, observe how they conducted themselves in their wars, and examine the causes of their victories and defeats, so as to avoid the latter and imitate them in the former.” (Machiavelli, p. 8)

If you disengage your personal cultural or social biases from your strategies you can also be open to try newer things.

This can actually be an adaptive attitude towards everything in life! Conventionally ‘good’ traits or practices can also be taken advantage of, if the person does not apply them smartly.

Competitiveness

According to a study on athletes, Machiavellianism is positively associated with task performance and competitiveness.

If you want to remain in power or gain it, you are likely to view others as your competition. This is, strictly speaking, not a bad thing. Competitiveness can predict better performance in various tasks. And competitiveness is associated with almost all the dark personality traits.

A Word of Caution

With the recent trend towards seeing ‘dark psychology’ as a positive thing, it does seem there are some benefits to it. Taking a look at authors like Robert Greene also would let you know some of the positives.

But there are major caveats to the popular explanation.

Is Machiavellianism Related to Intelligence?

Firstly, it is frequently believed that Machiavellians possess greater intellect. This perception is due to their proficiency in manipulating others, particularly when it comes to social comprehension. However, it is well documented that there is no connection between Machiavellianism and IQ.

One could also make the inference that Machiavellians would be better at interpreting emotions of others. However, here too there has been a negative correlation between Machiavellianism and emotional intelligence (EQ).

Conclusion

Niccolo Machiavelli was primarily concerned with advising rulers on how to best preserve order. He urged rulers to use a variety of actions, only a few of which were dishonest, in order to preserve the necessary order.

As a result, the Machiavellian concept is intrinsically complex.

Machiavelli’s manual translates into the use of dishonesty in the context of contemporary organizations, only when it is required to hold onto power and efficiently manage people.

Consequently, it should be evident that Machiavelli’s recommendations included more acceptable methods in addition to manipulativeness.

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Dark Personality Psychology Psychological Tips

The Positives of Psychopathy

M Abdullah Qureshi

Psychopathy is a psychological construct that refers to callous and unemotional patterns of attitudes or behaviors. While much of the popular opinion on psychopathy is actually negative, there are some behaviors of psychopaths which are also seen positively. An evidence of the allure of psychopathy can be seen in the fact that Ted Bundy, the American serial killer who reportedly killed 30 women between 1974 and 1978, received fan mail during his incarceration.

But this article does not talk about why psychopathy is attractive. Rather, I argue that certain behaviors that are classically found in psychopaths can actually produce good outcomes.

Psychopathy can actually be a helpful trait in various contexts.

As evidence, there was a large survey of psychologists, attorneys, and professors. The researchers gave them a list of psychopathic features. Following this, they asked the volunteers to say if they knew someone in their field who had those traits and was either good at their job or bad at it. The findings were interesting because the people who took part did say that successful psychopaths can be found in all fields.

The question this article attempts to answer is: what are the positives of psychopathy?

So, let’s dive straight into it!

Charisma

A study looked at the personalities, behaviors, and results of the lives of 315 people. They discovered a link between psychopathy and charm. They also discovered that these people were more likely to “work the system” in order to get ahead. People in general gravitate towards charismatic individuals. It can be through the way that they conduct themselves with others.

Charisma can elevate others’ perception of you. For example, another study showed that the superiors of ‘corporate psychopaths’ thought they were great at their jobs and should get awards. According to the higher-ups, these people were organizational stars.

Problems with Charisma

It is also important to consider that charisma is often used as a mask in psychopathy. The first study I quoted also indicated that many times, psychopathic people who were very charming were able to cheat on their partners, lie, abuse their work rights, or commit crimes without getting caught or punished. This was more common for psychopathic people who were less charismatic.

Moreover, studies also showed that these corporate stars bullied, scared, and forced those below them to do things that were not acceptable.

So, I would recommend you to separate the wheat (charisma) from the chaff (exploitation).

Confidence

People who are psychopaths are known for not being able to change their bad habits or stop responding to punishments. This is not exactly a desirable trait.

However, consider this persistence in the context of pursuing a tough goal. Whatever the world throws at you, you remain persistent. That’s not really bad at all!

Some scientists link psychopaths’ inability to change old habits to a “low fear IQ,” or a higher threshold for reacting to things that make you afraid. People who are less sensitive to dangerous cues tend to have a fearless personality as kids, which can grow into social confidence, daring behavior, and mental strength as teens and adults.

Problems with Very High Confidence

If we generalize this very low fear to one’s entire life – that’s when we get into the problematic waters. It could happen that in one’s high confidence level, they might perform tasks very wrongly. This would lead to eventual failures.

Moreover, if this is a recurring behavior, the individual might continue to fail again and again.

Having sais that, as long as the low fear is used in a few demanding situations, psychopathy could actually make a person confident in themselves.

Target-directed Attitude

Psychopaths have been proven to be less affected by conflicting information. It has been shown in task-based studies that they only attend to the prepotent goal-related information.

They do not seem to be affected by peripheral non-target information.

This means that psychopaths focus less on information that is not directly related to a goal they have if they are on to something. The pinpoint focus on the goal at hand is actually a great trait to have – as long as it can be controlled.

By focusing on the target and remaining fixated on it, one could ignore unnecessary anxiety-causing information. We already know that anxiety can be debilitating in itself. So, only attending to the goal might actually cause you much less distress.

Problems with High Levels of Target-directed Attitude

One can very easily overlook important conflicting information – much as is the case with too high confidence. In fact, pursuing a target single-mindedly could also mean that the individual neglects other responsibilities.

This could then cause major issues in domestic life. This tilt towards just one direction would mean that other important things would just be ignored completely.

High Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is the psychological trait which signifies how we feel about ourselves. People who have psychopathic personality problems are said to have high self-esteem.

However, this can vary with the subtypes of psychopathy.

Researchers have found that there are two types of psychopathy: main psychopathy and secondary psychopathy. These two types share antagonism, hostility, and rashness.

But the two are different in a way that has to do with their social habits called “withdrawal–sociability.”

Psychopaths who are of the primary type tend to be outgoing, dominating, confident, and low in anxiety. Secondary psychopaths, on the other hand, tend to be less social, have low self-esteem, be moody and nervous, and have more mental health problems.

Feeling good about oneself can lead to various desirable outcomes, even a decade onward!

Problems with Very High Self-Esteem

However, having too high a self-esteem could lead to a lack of insight – a problem with most psychopaths. This, conversely, has bad outcomes because out of very high self-esteem, the person might not take into account all the risks involved in setting unrealistic goals.

This could lead to major failures.

Conclusion

While psychopathy is considered to be a part of the dark tetrad of personality, it is a nuanced trait. There are factors of psychopathy which in many situations could actually be considered very ideal. Perhaps that is the main reason why many psychopaths continue to build successful careers and lives. However, it is also very possible that such individuals have built up many adaptive behaviors to either mask or manage their psychopathy.

Whatever the case might be, there is definitely a lot to be learnt from even dark personality traits!

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Cognitive Psychology Dark Personality Psychology

Why Do Pathological Liars Lie?

M Abdullah Qureshi

Lying is a very common behavior per se. There are various reasons one might choose to lie. Perhaps you do not want to cause trouble with your boss, so you might lie that there no problems at work. Perhaps a young adolescent might lie to his parents to cover up the fact that he was hanging out with his buddies.

Pathological lying is different. Pathological lying occurs even in situations where there is no harm in telling the truth.

I have talked in great detail how one could identify pathological lying behavior. To put it very shortly, pathological lying is the continuous behavior of lying irrespective of the consequences of a situation.

In this article, I will explain why pathological lying occurs in the first place.

Why would a person choose to lie even when there is no discernable gain?

I detail multiple reasons for this behavior. Let’s begin!

Shielding from Cognitive Dissonance

Well, consider something that you believed in since childhood. If that belief were to be violated by some new information, how would you feel?

Very anxious, fearful, depressed.

This is because of cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is the disruption of one’s thoughts when the belief that they held is successfully antagonized or challenged by a new belief or reality. The newer belief seems to be antithetical to the prior belief.

This is not exactly a comfortable situation. Here’s why.

To make room for the new belief, not only is the previous one challenged but many implications of the previous belief no longer seem to have a logical basis. So, there is intense tension of thoughts. It could be that you might not know what to do anymore. And if the belief was a core one, it becomes even harder to accept either of the beliefs.

Cognitive dissonance can be observed in people who, for example, get disfranchised with religion.

So, to stave off cognitive dissonance as much as they can, some people might lie to maintain a maladaptive belief. As this belief cannot stand the test of maturity, or is too painful to handle, a pathological liar will attempt to challenge the competing belief, even if it means foregoing logic.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a mechanism of learning or adopting behaviors by actively influencing an environment. While there is surprisingly sparse research, there is some case-study based evidence that pathological lying can develop in children as the result of their behavior being reinforcing for them.

So, for example, an individual might find that simply denying any wrongdoing, no matter the magnitude, helps them get out of trouble. As a result, they can repeat this behavior in further circumstances.

This is an example of operant conditioning as the individual operates on the environment (by lying) and they receive negative reinforcement (possibility of their punishment decreases). As they have discovered their action to be reinforcing, the individual will practice this behavior again, as it could help them out of tricky situations in the future.

With this, I will now move on to reasons which might lead to pathological lying through indirect ways. Let’s explore further!

Cognitive Distortions

A maladaptive or irrational belief is not based on a logical and balanced assessment of reality. It could be formed by demandingness, as Albert Ellis would have put it. It could be formed by an antagonistic or traumatic event. Whatever the case may be, irrational beliefs are distorted versions of the perception of reality.

One class of agents which form such irrational beliefs is of cognitive distortions.

To define very simply, cognitive distortions are elements of subjective interpretations of reality which subjectively distort the content or information of one’s beliefs about the reality.

In the case of pathological lying, one could think along certain cognitive distortions. For example, an individual could view the other person as an enemy, engaging in dichotomous thinking (all or none thinking), even when they are relatively neutral in their stance towards the person. As a result, the individual, under the influence of dichotomous thinking – which is a cognitive distortion – could start fabricating information out of paranoia or dislike for the other individual.

Psychiatric Disorders

The psychiatric disorders which contribute the most to pathological lying are usually those that are associated with impulse control. These are usually substance use disorders, gambling disorder, or kleptomania. On the other hand, pathological lying can also be found in individuals with personality disorders – particularly Cluster B personality disorders.

If a person has an impulse control problem, they might try to lie in order to maintain their condition. For example, if one has a substance use disorder, they might lie to their physician about things which could lead to desirable outcomes. They could exaggerate their experience of pain to receive more painkillers. However, this can also fall under the ambit of malingering, which is a psychiatric diagnosis.

Another example could be of lying in personality disorders. An individual with narcissistic personality disorder might lie compulsively in situations where they wish to portray a grand image of themselves.

Much like cognitive distortions, psychiatric disorders might contribute indirectly to pathological lying.

Conclusion

Cognitive dissonance, conditioning, distortion and psychiatric issues, all are interconnected phenomena. All of these aspects can be seen contributing to the incidence of pathological behavior. This is no different in the case of pathological lying. If one follows the psychoanalytic perspective strictly, this behavior could originate from one’s childhood experiences which might be traumatic or disorienting.

Safe to say, pathological lying is not a fun condition. It can disrupt one’s life greatly, causing major problems at work, home, school or any other setting which involves communication. In fact, people who have this issue might find themselves being socially isolated from their protective circle. This, as mentioned earlier, could lead to an even more intensification of their compulsive lying behavior.

If you believe that you or someone you know might have a major issue with it, perhaps speaking to a mental health professional could be the best way to ease your discomfort.

Categories
Dark Personality Psychology Psychiatric Disorders

5 Red Flags of Pathological Lying

In the current digital sphere, communication has diversified. No longer does one have to speak to each other directly. While this has greatly increased the convenience of communication, it has also increased the convenience for pathological lying.

Yes, this did just escalate quickly.

Pathological lying is a pattern of behavior of distorting or hiding information that is not really needed in the context. So, a pathological liar would be a person who lies ‘without much thought’, even in situations where he or she is not being harmed. One could connect pathological lying to psychopathy, Machiavellianism and/or narcissism.

However, compared to these large traits, pathological lying is one specific behavior. One study of 1,000 young offenders found excessive lying among 15% of males and 26% of females.

In this article, I will talk about 5 red flags that could give away someone who engages in pathological lying.

Let us begin!

1. Difficulty in Getting a Straightforward Answer

When one asks a simple question, a person who engages in pathological lying will respond with answers that are too vague. They might bring up some other topic or they might appear to connect the question to some other topic.

Not only that, you might feel as if you have to wrangle the answer out of them. This particle behavior is interesting because it directly relates to one aspect of a trait in the Five Factor Model of personality.

Straightforwardness is a major aspect of Agreeableness, a personality trait akin to being polite, honest and empathic.  Psychopaths, narcissists and Machiavellians, all generally score less on measures of straightforwardness.

2. The Behavior is Persistent across Age and Context

Scientists have also defined pathological lying as chronic lying behavior. A pathological liar would seem to lie almost indiscriminately, across multiple situations. So, one major identifier here is if you hang out with this person and he/she continues to fabricate information even when there is no real need to.

I would further argue here that a person who has had a habit of lying pathologically can also remain functional. It could be that they have learned how to lie differently in different contexts to escape being caught.

However, there is a high chance that if you are their friend, relative, family or any kind of long-term associate, you will detect small indications of missing and distorted information.

This relates to the next point.

3. Suspicious Friends, Family and Colleagues

Even if the point being lied about is not important, when we learn that something someone says is untrue and dishonest, we might not trust them. This then forms the basis of the turbulent relationships that a pathological liar would have.

In the case of people who engage in pathological lying, the social circle they have might be suspicious of them. They might say that the person is insincere. Because of that, their family members or friends and colleagues might find it difficult to confide in them.

Often this distrust could show up in behaviors like not leaving any valuables in the pathological liar’s custody. It could also show up in not including them in close-knit family gatherings.

A crucial point to remember here is that this exclusion from social gatherings further solidifies pathological lying.

So, it is not at all an attractive thing to any person, even if they pathologically lie about many things. In fact, excluding such people from these gatherings could lead to even more personal isolation, which could increase their levels of paranoia.

4. Very Frequent Contradictions in Narratives

We as humans are far from perfect. We make many of the same errors in judgment that many people around us make.

However, with respect to the majority of people, the contradictions in our speech or expressions are far lesser and in-between than in the case of a pathological liar. It could be that when recalling a memorable trip, the individual could distort multiple points of the story to make them look superior. Conversely, if they are narrating a story or some point, they might distort parts of the story to put down someone else that they might not found favorable.

Whichever route they take, pathological lying can be identified when the story that they tell seems to be fundamentally distorted, with various points excluded from it.

One could say here that this is because pathological liars lack insight.  

5. Confrontations Lead to Overreactions

No one really wants to be openly confronted about their lack of honesty. It makes us self-conscious about ourselves. However, we have enough wits about ourselves to realize genuine issues that we might have. When someone close to us tells us that we are being dishonest, we often make a goodwill attempt to understand what they mean.

Now, consider this in the context of an individual who does not realize that

  • they are being dishonest
  • being dishonest is a behavior that should be improved.

Such an individual would become defensive when they are confronted. Even in very private and personal settings. Since they do not consider you or anyone close to them trustworthy enough to tell the truth and be okay, they might see your or another friend’s advice as a challenge to their identity.

So, a pathological liar would view confrontations as open indication of antagonism.

And they would then reply according to this conception.

This could result in ‘fighting matches’ with their close associates. Further still, this could result in physical and violent confrontations.

Conclusion

While popular media portrays pathological liars as psychopaths with no distress, this is not the case. Pathological lying is one feature of many distressing psychological disorders. In fact, pathological lying is in itself considered to be a condition of its own, defined as pseudologia phantastica.

So, while pathological lying causes distress to others, it often originates from running from psychological distress in the individual. This makes it an uncomfortable condition for the person too.

If you feel as if you or someone around you has a behavior of lying pathologically, I would advise you to give this the proper time and care.

After all, wouldn’t it be great if we make our lives less distressing?

Categories
Dark Personality Psychology

An Introduction to Narcissism

Imagine a world in which you are the main character. Now imagine a desire of others being responsible for fulfilling your wishes. You understand that you have to work towards them. However, your desire to be ‘great’ is as pervasive as your desire to be told that you are great.

Narcissism is a controversial personality construct which has received much scientific and popular attention. You could look at Patrick Bateman (from the 2000 movie American Psycho) as having significant narcissistic features. Narcissism is also a part of the Dark Tetrad of Personality, which feature other dark traits of psychopathy, Machiavellianism and sadism.

In this article, I will provide a brief introduction to narcissism. I will define it, detail its types and how it may develop.

So, let’s begin!

Defining Narcissism

Various classical theorists have attempted the conceptualization of narcissism.

Narcissus syndrome is characterized by people who are very cocky, controlling, hostile, and uncaring toward others. People who are narcissistic want recognition and respect from others but don’t give it to others. They also think that there is only one winner in relationships, so they treat everyone equally.

Group ego is another thing that can happen. The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness, which Erich Fromm wrote in 1973, mentioned that group narcissism is a level higher than individual narcissism. The person’s selfish needs are met by associating with and relating to a group, like a political or religious one. This need for associating with people of ‘higher means’ is also one of the major features of Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD).

Types of Narcissism

Narcissism is thought to have different levels or types, which can be generally put into two groups: narcissistic grandiosity and narcissistic fragility. Paul Wink did a study in which he used the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) to get six narcissism scores. He then used a principal components analysis to find two independent components, which he named vulnerability-sensitivity and grandiosity-exhibitionism.

I further explain these types in the following subsections.

Grandiose Narcissism

People who show signs of grandiosity are sometimes called malicious, overt, ignorant, thick-skinned, special child, cunning, arrogant, and psychopathic. People who were high on grandiosity-exhibitionism were the only ones in Wink’s study who were seen as bold, talkative, confident, and showy.

In a study, it was observed that there was a positive relationship between grandiose narcissism and assertiveness (from extraversion) and intellect (openness/intelligence). On the other hand, there was a negative relationship between grandiose narcissism and agreeableness, conscientiousness, and withdrawal (from neuroticism).

This indicates that grandiose narcissists are more socially outgoing, perceive themselves as high in intellect but are argumentative and less likely to follow a set routine or actually strive for getting success.

Vulnerable Narcissism

Some words that have been used to describe people who show signs of fragility are wanting, hidden, hypervigilant, thin skinned, shamed child, compensatory, and shy. Only people who scored high on vulnerability-sensitivity were described as worried, emotional, defensive, and nervous by their wives in Wink’s study.

Surprisingly, people who were vulnerable narcissists also had higher levels of openness, much like the grandiose narcissists.

Hence, this indicates that vulnerable narcissists are more sensitive to criticism but they also could possess higher levels of fantasy and/or intellect and a desire for novel experience.

Having understood the sub-types of narcissism, I will now explain the 3 factors of narcissism and how they relate.

The 3-Factor Model of Narcissism

The first factor is present in both grandiose and sensitive narcissism. It has been called competition, hostility, or entitlement. When someone is high in hostility, they are likely to be cocky, cruel, dishonest, spoiled, sarcastic, and ungrateful, even if they seem more grand or sensitive in public.

The second factor, which has been called agentic extraversion, admiration, or grandiosity, is more adaptive (meaning it causes the narcissistic person fewer interpersonal problems). It is linked to assertiveness, leadership, high self-esteem, behavioral activation/approach orientation (like wanting to be proactive instead of reactive and being motivated by reward more than punishment), and it is unique to grandiose narcissism.

The third factor, which is called narcissistic neuroticism or fragility, is at the heart of sensitive narcissism. It is linked to unstable and unstable self-esteem, negative emotions, and feelings of shame and other self-conscious emotions. This factor is mostly the same as psychological discomfort, but it’s also linked to interpersonal damage, like having trouble getting along with other people.

Development of Narcissism

There are two major psychological theories which explain how narcissism develops in a person:

  • Psychoanalytic Theory
  • Social Learning Theory

I will attempt to explain both perspectives.

Psychoanalytic Theory

I will explain the psychoanalytic perspective through two authors: Kernberg and Kohut.

Kernberg says that narcissism happens when parents reject or leave their children. Parents who don’t love and accept their children may cause the child to become protective and think that only they can be trusted and loved. This is called the parental-devaluation hypothesis. In some ways one could understand this as reaction formation.

Kernberg believes in a stage model of libidinal development. Problems happen when there is decline in the developmental process of undifferentiated libido, autoeroticism, narcissism, and then object love, with selfish people not making it to the last stage.

Kohut, on the other hand, doesn’t think that selfish desire changes into object love. Instead, he thinks that it grows into adulthood on its own. Kohut’s theory is really a theory of how the self develops. It says that abnormal narcissism can happen when a child fails to idealize their parents because they were rejected or didn’t care about them.

To summarize the psychoanalytic perspective, it argues that critical and unloving parents sow the seeds of narcissism in an individual.

Social Learning Theory

When parents think they are better than other kids and deserve more, social learning theory says that the child is more likely to become selfish as an adult. Sometimes, kids might start to think that they are unique and deserve special treatment.

Cross-sectional study, on the other hand, shows that adult narcissists are more likely than nonnarcissists to remember their parents as cold and overly valued them as kids.

Still, a more thorough study would put more light on the subject.

In the study, 565 kids and their parents talked about child vanity, child self-esteem, maternal overvaluation, and parental love over the course of four 6-month waves.

The results go against Freudian theory and back the idea of social learning: Instead of a lack of kindness, maternal overvaluation was linked to narcissism.

So, kids may pick up narcissism by taking on board their parents’ inflated views of them. As proof of how specific this result is, parental love, not parental overvaluation, was found to predict self-esteem.

Conclusion

Narcissism has been the object of fascination for a long time. At times, ironically, the narcissistic individuals are idealized by many individuals. Part of the reason why we are fascinated by such characters or characterizations is that humans have a general inclination towards self-preservation. In fact, at certain points standing up for oneself is actually a positive thing.

However, individuals high in narcissism often have dysfunctional lives because of their self-serving behaviors. While some might gain insight and actively try to mitigate this, others struggle in various functional areas of their lives. I have painted a picture in this snapshot story.

If you believe that you or someone you know might have high levels of narcissism and if you want to resolve it, please refer to a clinician.

Categories
Dark Personality Psychology

An Introduction to Psychopathy

Psychopathy is a fascinating personality characteristic. It has interested both popular and scientific inquiry. It has also inspired fictional characterizations as in Hannibal Lector and Dexter.

On the other hand, psychopathy has been a well-researched area of psychology and psychiatry. Recently, psychopathy has received significant attention as a personality trait of the Dark Tetrad. The Dark Tetrad features other controversial traits such as narcissism, machiavellianism and sadism.

In this article, I will attempt to introduce you to the concept of psychopathy alone.

Let’s begin by first defining what psychopathy is.

Defining Psychopathy

In 1941, Cleckley wrote about 15 men and women he thought were psychopaths. By this he meant people who seemed normal, smart, and capable but were clearly troubled. Cleckley said that these people wore “masks of sanity” because they seemed normal but were – according to him – clearly “insane.”

A general theory of antisocial behavior and involvement with the criminal justice system says that people with behavior problems have

  • Trouble controlling their instinctive or emotional responses in favor of more socially appropriate ones
  • A lot of negative affect, especially emotions like anger and hostility
  • Irritability as seen in emotions like anxiety and depression
  • Have a hard time controlling their negative affect and negative affect often interact in a dynamic way.

People whose behavior patterns are dominated by both low control and high negative affect are not only more likely to have behavior problems, but they are also more likely to make other people feel bad. These patterns are most noticeable in people who have a high psychopathy level.

Having understood what psychopathy is, it is important to understand the types of psychopathy.

Let’s take a look at the typology now!

Types of Psychopathy

Psychopathy has received much research attention. Robert Hare in particular is to thank for the typology of the two factors of psychopathy. I briefly describe the two concepts below.

Factor 1 Psychopathy

People with psychopathy are different from their peers with chaotic behavior problems because they don’t care about other people, don’t have empathy, and treat others badly. This group of social and emotional traits is covered by Factor 1 of Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist – Revised (PCL-R). It is different from the second factor (Factor 2) that covers a wider range of antisocial behaviors and lifestyle factors that are also common in people with disruptive behavior disorders.

Factor 1 is most closely linked to the main psychological traits of psychopathy as described by Cleckley. A Factor 1 psychopath is dominant in social situations and not anxious a lot. Moreover, the subject’s social class and the quality of his training don’t have much of an effect on Factor 1.

Factor 2 Psychopathy

Both of these factors of psychopathy are very similar to each other.

But there is a difference in how the two ideas are conceptualized. Factor 2 psychopathy is very similar to antisocial personality disorder and fits with the idea that psychopaths are violent, careless, and rude from a very young age.

One’s socioeconomic status and a troubled childhood have a big effect on Factor 2 psychopathy.

While the two factors of psychopathy are differentiated conceptually, the following types are differentiated clinically.

Further Classification

Clinical Psychopathy

When someone has clinical psychopathy, they act, feel, and think in ways that aren’t “normal.” This pattern affects many areas of their life, such as work, family, and social interactions. The person is a severely psychologically-impaired worker, lover, parent, and friend who consistently fails to function. The vast majority of the time, they are unable to live with other people and end up in prisons or mental hospitals.

Quite fortunately, the base rate for clinical psychopathy is very low—probably less than 1% of the population as a whole.

Subclinical Psychopathy

The distinction between clinical and subclinical psychopathy is not in the types or groups of behavior, emotions, social interactions, or explanations. Rather, it is in the strength, size, or frequency of those actions and thoughts.

People who are subclinical psychopaths have the same patterns of disordered behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. However, their levels of impairment and pervasiveness are not as high because they show signs at a lower level and rate. So, an individual who has subclinical psychopathy might be lax about social norms. But they will not usually engage in aggressive or antisocial behaviors in situations where there is a higher chance of being caught.

Now that we have covered the major sub-types of psychopathy, we can begin to understand how a psychopath ‘develops.’

The Development of Psychopathy in Life

Psychopathic traits, like other personality traits, may not stay the same throughout childhood.

However, a large amount of research now shows that they are linked to a higher likelihood of continuing to be negative and showing psychopathic behavior as an adult. When put together, uncaring, insensitive, interpersonal, and reckless traits make the risk of persistently bad behavior in kids and teens much higher.

Kids who act out and have callous and unemotional (CU) traits don’t seem to feel pity or guilt when they act out. They often act unreasonably aggressively. They also don’t seem to be able to be punished, and don’t seem to have the affiliative wants and goals that normal children do.

If a child has disruptive behaviors or CU traits, they are less likely to notice, react to, and understand affective cues like other people’s sad or scared facial expressions. They are also less likely to show empathy toward others, pay attention to the eyes of attachment figures less, and adjust less well to changes in reward and punishment situations.

Also, major parts of the brain seem to play a role in showing this low emotional response to things that make us scared. A group of researchers looked at fear conditioning in boys who had been in trouble with the law before. They found that CU traits were linked to lower activity in the anterior cingulate cortex during fear conditioning.

Another group of scientists discovered that fear stimuli did not normally activate the amygdala in kids with disruptive behaviors and CU traits when attentional load was low. In healthy volunteers, fear stimuli normally activate the amygdala.

Researchers have also found that kids with disruptive behaviors and high amounts of CU traits have less activity and different connections in a network of brain areas that are normally linked to feeling other people’s pain.

Conclusion

Psychopathy is a large but specific concept. It involves callous and unemotional traits. It also involves an impaired experience of empathy. Moreover, individuals who are psychopathic do not have ‘happy’ lives in general. In fact, they pose a risk – not just to others but to themselves as well.

Thus, if you believe that you can relate to some of the aspects that are described above, it is recommended to see a clinician.

The current research on psychopathy is ongoing. While there still are not sure-fire biological markers, scientists are swiftly moving towards the underlying causes of psychopathy.

Suffice to say, psychopathy exists in a social context. The more we uncover it, the better will the outcomes be for those who suffer from it.

Categories
Dark Personality Psychology

An Introduction to Machiavellianism

Written by Abdullah Qureshi

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) was a diplomat from Florence. He traveled to the courts of Europe and saw directly how the leaders he supported arose and then met their demise.

He wrote The Prince in an effort to get along with the new king (Machiavelli, 1966).

To put it briefly, The Prince is a book with tips on how to get and keep power. Apparently, there are no standard ideals like faith, respect, or humanity in it. In other words, one does what is convenient for him.

I, however, disagree.

Machiavelli wasn’t really a Machiavellian. In fact, he loved his state in a way that was not typical of a Machiavellian.

This particular attribute of his is what makes Machiavellianism a truly distinct personality trait. In some ways, this trait is practically helpful. In other ways, Machiavellianism is destructive.

Before we go into further investigation, let us first define it.

Definition

Based on the works of Niccolo Machiavelli, Machiavellianism is a tendency towards intentionally and strategically manipulating others to gain and keep power and control (Wilson et al., 1996).

However, other researchers characterize it differently. For example, Collison et al. (2018) describes Machiavellianism as a trait concerned with planning, being able to delay satisfaction, and being hostile toward others (Collison et al., 2018).

So, one can view Machiavellianism as both a negative and a positive trait.
Christie and Geis (1970) were the first psychologists to look at Machiavellianism as a way to explain why people behave differently. They came up with a set of tests for ‘Mach’. People who did well on the test – or high-Machs – and people who did poorly – or low-Machs – behave differently in many other areas. These areas are diverse. They range from jobs they choose to how well they do at games where they have to work together.

At this point in time, Machiavellianism is part of the dark tetrad. The Dark Tetrad is a group of dark personality traits that have some overlap: narcissism, psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and sadism. Prior to that, Machiavellianism was one of the three parts of the Dark Triad, along with narcissism and psychopathy.

I have already talked about sadism.

Paulhus and Williams (2002) were the first to talk about this group of personality traits. Fundamentally, these concepts are different, even though they all have tendency towards cruelty and hostility.

Core Features of Machiavellianism

Machiavellianism is different from the other three traits in two important ways.

  1. People who believe in Machiavellianism are pessimistic, which makes them think that most people, if not all people, only care about themselves.
  2. People who are high in Machiavellianism are flexible in how they deal with others and how they try to trick them (Bereczkei, 2015).

Researchers led by Bereczkei and others discovered that people who are high in Machiavellianism have brain structures that make them cautious when interacting with others. These people also have brain changes that show Machiavellianism is linked to being more sensitive to rewards and delaying satisfaction (Bagozzi et al., 2013; Verbeke et al., 2011).

So, having understand what Machiavellianism is, I will now detail experiments that assess this trait’s influence on social life.

Social Functioning of Machiavellian Individuals

Structured vs Non-Structured Environments

In 1993, Shultz looked at how well stockbrokers from companies with different organizational structures did at making sales.

In more organized companies, workers usually follow a proper sales guidebook. Plus, they are given possible clients, and it is almost impossible to change deals to change profits.

On the other hand, there are also companies that are not as tightly organized. These companies allow their employees to “wheel and deal.” Employees are given a short suggestion pamphlet instead of a sales guidebook, they can get clients from anywhere, and there are lots of ways to cheat on profits.
In short-term lab tests, this business structure is more like the kind of setup that lets high-Machs work.

Shultz (1993) divided the range of Mach scores at the middle point to create groups for high-Mach and low-Mach scores.

The findings were interesting.

When companies were not very organized, high-Machs had more clients and made twice as much in fees as low-Machs. On the other hand, Low-Machs made twice as much as high-Machs in organizations with tight structures.

This demonstrates how people high in Machiavellianism can do better than others in an environment where the rules are lax.

Trustful vs Distrustful Bosses

In 1976, Harrell and Hartnagel gave both high- and low-Machs a chance to steal from a worker-supervisor. In one situation, the boss was very sure that the worker would steal, so he or she kept an eye on them during the session. In the second situation, the boss was more trustful and told the worker that he or she didn’t need to be watched as closely.

A lot of people stole from the boss they didn’t trust. The gaps between high- and low-Machs weren’t that big.

High Machs, on the other hand, were much more likely to steal from the trusted boss and also stole more than low Machs. Furthermore, overall, they stole more money than people low in Machiavellianism.

This indicates a greater tendency of those high in Machiavellianism to engage in deceitful behavior in situations where the authority is unsure.

Flexibility and Leadership

In 1980, Drory and Gluskinos looked into how Machiavellianism could be used as a personality style for leadership in controlled task groups.

As part of the study, the subjects were put in charge of task groups that built toy cube bridges in both good and bad conditions. It was shown that the boss had a lot of power when things were going well. In the bad case, on the other hand, the boss was shown to not have much power to lead.
The result of the high Mach led group was the same as that of the low Mach led group.

However, there were big differences in how the groups interacted with each other.

Leaders high in Machiavellianism gave out more directions and did less to ease stress.

The low Machs, on the other hand, behaved the same way in both good and bad cases. Conversely, the high Machs were less directive and asked for help more when things were not favorable.

The study demonstrates the flexibility that is associated with Machiavellianism.

Difference between Machiavellianism and Psychopathy

There exists a major problem in differentiating Machiavellianism.

For one, existing tests for Machiavellianism don’t match up with how experts rate the idea (Miller et al., 2017). Secondly, these tests are almost identical to tests for psychopathy (Vize et al., 2018).

The main issue is that current tests of Machiavellianism are linked to disinhibition tests that look at traits like impatience, laziness, failure, and not sticking with something even when it gets hard. This is a problem because Machiavelli wrote about how to get and keep power, status, and control through caution, calculation, and the careful, thoughtful consideration of risk. These are the exact opposites of being disinhibited. Thus, there is a major issue of conceptually differentiating the two traits.
Based on Collison et al. (2018), both categories should have high levels of opposition, but they should have different relationships with disinhibition. So, Machiavellian individuals would have high levels of restraint while psychopathic people having low levels.

While the research is still going on, it is important to isolate Machiavellianism as a completely separate construct.

Conclusion

Machiavellianism is a ‘dark’ personality trait which includes a manipulative style of behavior in social interactions. It also shows features of preoccupation with gaining power. However, the trait is often misunderstood at its core. Manipulation cannot be considered ‘completely bad’ behavior in various situations. Moreover, delaying gratification is actually considered to be an indication of mental maturity in individual.

Unfortunately, as described above, Machiavellianism is – often wrongly – equated to certain psychopathic behaviors. Further research is, however, required to measure the trait’s intensity. Research in the line of Collison et al.’s (2018) work, in particular, could give a better understanding of the trait and the personality it is most intense in.

References

  • Bagozzi, R. P., Verbeke, W. J., Dietvorst, R. C., Belschak, F. D., van den Berg, W. E., & Rietdijk, W. J. (2013). Theory of mind and empathic explanations of Machiavellianism: A neuroscience perspective. Journal of Management, 39(7), 1760-1798.
  • Bereczkei, T. (2015). The manipulative skill: Cognitive devices and their neural correlates underlying Machiavellian’s decision making. Brain and cognition, 99, 24-31.
  • Christie, R., & Geis, F. L. (2013). Studies in machiavellianism. Academic Press
  • Collison, K. L., Vize, C. E., Miller, J. D., & Lynam, D. R. (2018). Development and preliminary validation of a five factor model measure of Machiavellianism. Psychological assessment, 30(10), 1401.
  • Drory, A., & Gluskinos, U. M. (1980). Machiavellianism and leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65(1), 81–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.65.1.81
  • Harrell, W. A., & Hartnagel, T. (1976). The impact of Machiavellianism and the trustfulness of the victim on laboratory theft. Sociometry, 157-165.
  • Machiavelli, N. (1966). The Prince (New York: Bantam, Original work published 1513).
  • Miller, J. D., Hyatt, C. S., Maples‐Keller, J. L., Carter, N. T., & Lynam, D. R. (2017). Psychopathy and Machiavellianism: A distinction without a difference?. Journal of personality, 85(4), 439-453.
  • Paulhus, D. L., & Williams, K. M. (2002). The Dark Triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 556-563
  • Shultz, C. J. (1993). Situational and dispositional predictors of performance: a test of the hypothesized Machiavellianism structure interaction among sales persons 1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23(6), 478-498.
  • Verbeke, W. J., Rietdijk, W. J., van den Berg, W. E., Dietvorst, R. C., Worm, L., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2011). The making of the Machiavellian brain: A structural MRI analysis. Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics, 4(4), 205.
  • Vize, C. E., Lynam, D. R., Collison, K. L., & Miller, J. D. (2018). Differences among dark triad components: A meta-analytic investigation. Personality disorders: Theory, research, and treatment, 9(2), 101.
  • Wilson, D. S., Near, D., & Miller, R. R. (1996). Machiavellianism: a synthesis of the evolutionary and psychological literatures. Psychological bulletin, 119(2), 285.
Categories
Cognitive Psychology Dark Personality Psychology

What is the Main Character Syndrome?

what is main character syndrome

Written by Abdullah Qureshi

Have you ever felt that you are the hero/heroine of your story? Do you feel as if everything in your world has an effect on your ‘story’?

Or, let me put it this way: have you ever felt that you are completely different from everyone around you?

If you have felt this, then chances are that you have ‘main character syndrome’. The main character syndrome is an unofficial term used for the belief that one is the main character of life.

Right there, as a clinical psychologist I am reminded about the concept of fantastical thinking. However, rather than approach the main character syndrome as a disorder of cognition, I will be more nuanced.

By the method of psychoanalysis, I will attempt to show the features and progression of the main character syndrome.

Symptoms of Main Character Syndrome

People at large understand that they are in some ways the main character of their life.

However, a person with main character syndrome tends to go further than that. To be specific, the main character syndrome is the belief that one is the main character of not only their own life, but of the lives of the people around them as well.

There are many parallels between this syndrome and various personality disorders. In particular, there appear to be 6 symptoms.

  • Impairment in empathy
  • Intense relationships
  • A tendency to enjoy attention
  • Self-related fantasies
  • A feeling of superiority
  • Dramatic thinking

Oddly, all of these 6 symptoms can be found in Cluster B personality disorders of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Psychiatric Disorders (DSM) V (APA, 2022). These disorders are related to antisocial, narcissistic, emotionally unstable and histrionic traits.

However, I argue in this essay that the symptoms of the main character syndrome are at a sub-clinical level. This means that these symptoms can be found in individuals who do not have major psychological disorders.

So, why isn’t the main character syndrome harmful in itself?

Psychoanalysis of the Main Character

Archetype and Personality

If you understand the archetype of ‘The Hero’, you understand the depth of the main character syndrome. According to Carl Jung (2012), the Swiss psychologist named the Hero as part of the ‘Self’ archetype. The Hero represents the struggles and trials of an individual character as he/she moves towards a grand goal. The Hero already has a view of the world that he is very important.

Moreover, there is a strong element of ‘fantasy.’

I hypothesize here that individuals with this syndrome are also high in openness to fantasy.

The main character fantasizes the life he would have dependently or independently of the goals that he might achieve eventually.

Motivation

If you analyze yourself, you will find that you have certain desires. Clark Hull (1937), an American psychologist, pointed out that we have a psychic drive to attain our desires. To reduce this drive, we attempt to move towards a certain goal. This, he said, was ‘motivation.’

Motivation underlies the story of the Hero. He has high ambitions to follow because he has goals which are idealistic. Since he also can fantasize and imagine very vividly, he can translate this fantasy to others around him. And thus, his goals become very attractive – not just to him, but to the people around him too.

Relationships

By focusing on himself, the Hero, in some ways, foregoes the deep emotional connection that he has with others.

But, to a main character, if he has a generally adaptive view of the world, the people around him also represent ‘worthy’ characters in his life.

So, while his empathy is impaired, the Hero maintains some emotional connections.

The relationships might be intense, since the main character takes many things personally and could have overly dramatic reactions. But this is not because the main character is inherently malicious (there is no such thing as inherently malicious). Rather it is because he ascribes a high value to his goals and beliefs.

This, obviously, has a darker side as well.

Conflicts

Suppose that an individual with the main character syndrome has had a tumultuous childhood, or early life. This individual could have distorted views about violence, aggression and morality in general. As a result, they might end up harming themselves, or the people around them

I argue here that this is the case in cluster B personality disorders.

In fact, even if the beliefs of an individual are not antisocial, he/she can still end up hurting others.

Death of the Hero

The ‘Hero complex’ does not carry on for the entirety of his life. According to Joseph Campbell (1987), at a certain point, the Hero experiences ‘ego death.’ This is the point where the Hero complex is resolved.

However, if an individual is reinforced for his/her main character syndrome, it does not die until the reinforcement ends. This could happen in the case of people who acquire affluence based on their drive.

In some cases, it could be that an individual never ceases to move out of the main character syndrome. This can be seen in individuals who just cannot seem to forget small bits of evidence of success they have attained.

It can be found in celebrities, public figures and even antisocial personalities.

A significant number of people who are successful have main character syndrome.

Examples of Main Character Syndrome

I offer no diagnosis here.

However, I can comment on features of the main character syndrome in certain people.

After all, many famous figures have reported feeling the same way. Take, for example, The Weeknd, who mostly sings about experiences of his own (whether real or imagined). If you haven’t heard The Weeknd, do check out his Dawn FM album. I believe that it is a great album to enjoy both musically and psychologically!

One can also find main character features in opinionated athletes. This is in the case of Mohammad Amir, a Pakistani cricketer. Amir espouses his opinions on cricketers as if these opinions are very insightful (even in cases they might not be). Moreover, he finds it easy to communicate with other cricketers as equals. He also appears charismatic but polarizing.

On the other hand, main character syndrome can also cause a person an undue amount of problems. For example, if you look at Charles Manson and his interviews, you will find his beliefs to be very idiosyncratic. This allowed him to manipulate his ‘followers’ into committing heinous crimes.

Conclusion

The main character syndrome can be, in some ways, used synonymously with the Hero syndrome, or Hero complex.

It is a useful syndrome. People who have it are usually charismatic and opinionated.

However, one must remain cognizant that they are not the only main character in the world. This insight is necessary if an individual wishes to not hurt others. If this insight is reached, the main character syndrome can be a powerful motivator.

It can also be looked at as an indicator of a dynamic personality.

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev.).
  • Campbell’s, J. (1987). The hero’s journey.
  • Hull, C. L. (1937). Mind, mechanism, and adaptive behavior. Psychological Review, 44(1), 1.
  • Jung, C. G. (2012). Four archetypes:(From vol. 9, part 1 of the collected works of CG Jung) (Vol. 29). Princeton University Press.