Categories
Psychiatric Disorders

Diagnostic Features of Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Written by Najwa Bashir

Narcissism

Book III of Ovid’s Metamorphoses is where the word “narcissism” was first used. There is a story that Narcissus falls in love with his own image because of a curse. Narcissism, on the other hand, wasn’t used in psychology until the late 1800s (Mitra et al., 2024).

Northcote (1929) says that psychologist Havelock Ellis first used the word “narcissism” in 1898 to describe a patient whose behavior was similar to Narcissus’s. Freud wrote about “narcissistic libido” soon after in his book Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (Van Haute &Westerink, 2016).Ernest Jones, a psychologist, said that narcissism is a flaw in character (Kirsner, 2007). There was a case report on grave narcissism written by Robert Waelder in 1925. According to what he termed it, “narcissistic personality” (Guttman& with the Assistance of Irene Kagan Guttman, 1987). The DSM-I did not initially include NPD, even after these revisions. Narcissism wasnot even mentioned in the DSM until the release of DSM-II in 1968 (Schmidt, 2019).

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is characterized by feeling better than others, wanting to be admired, and lacking the ability to relate to other people’s feelings. It is not uncommon for individuals with NPD to experience difficulties in social and professional environments, and it is also common for them to have psychiatric and substance use issues. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and its cluster-based classification go into detail about the traits that make Cluster B personality disorders unique. These disorders include NPD, antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, and histrionic personality disorder (Mitra et al., 2024). In community groups, the rate of NPD is thought to be between 0% and 6.2%. Between 50 and 75 percent of people who have been labelled with NPD are men. Cluster B of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) is where NPD fits in. This group is for “dramatic, emotional, and erratic” personality disorders. Antisocial, Borderline, and Histrionic Personality Disorders are also in this group (Kacel et al., 2017).

Diagnostic Criteria for Narcissistic Personality Disorder

An individual with narcissistic personality disorder consistently acts or fantasizes about being very important, needs praise, and doesn’t care about other people, according to DSM 5 TR (APA, 2022). These traits show up in a number of situations starting in early adulthood and include five or more than five of the below mentioned characteristics:

  1. Really thinks they’re great (for example, they might talk about their skills and achievements and want to be seen as better than other people even though they haven’t done as much).
  2. Is full of hopes for long-lasting success, power, beauty, brightness, or the perfect love.
  3. Thinks that they are “special” and unique, and that only other “special” or high-status people (or groups) can understand them or should hang out with them.
  4. Wants praise too much.
  5. Feels too privileged, which means they think they should be treated extra well or have all their needs met naturally.
  6. Shows interpersonal exploitative behavior, which means using other people to get what you want.
  7. In this case, the person doesn’t want to learn or connect with other people’s feelings and needs.
  8. Is or thinks that other people are jealous of them a lot of the time.
  9. Shows arrogant, haughty behaviors or attitudes.

Diagnostic Features of Narcissistic Personality Disorder

In the light of DSM 5 TR (APA, 2022):

  • Narcissistic personality disorder is characterized by a persistent pattern of arrogance, need for praise, and lack of empathy that starts in early adulthood and shows up in a range of situations.
  • People with narcissistic personality disorder often dream about being rich, powerful, smart, beautiful, or in love(Criterion 2). They may feel good about the respect and comfort they’ve been waiting for a long time and think of how they compare to popular or wealthy people.
  • People with narcissistic personality disorder believe they are one of a kind and expect others to agree (Criterion 3). These people can be shocked or even heartbroken when they don’t get the praise they think they deserve from other people. They might think that only high-status people can understand them and that they should only hang out with those people. The people they hang out with might seem “unique”, “perfect,” or “gifted.” People who have this problem think that their wants are unique and not something that regular people can understand. They feel better about their own self-worth when they think highly of the people they hang out with. They may insist on only having the “best” person (doctor, lawyer, barber, and teacher) or being connected with the “best” schools, but they may not trust the titles of those who let them down.
  • People with narcissistic personality disorder usually need a lot of praise (Criterion 4). They almost always have very low self-esteem, and because they deal with extreme self-doubt, self-criticism, and emptiness, they need to actively seek the admiration of others. A lot of their thoughts may be on how well they are doing and what other people think of them. They might think that everyone will be very happy to see them and be shocked if people don’t want their things. They may always want praise, and a lot of the time, they do a great job of it.
  • • These people think they deserve special treatment, which shows they have a sense of entitlement that comes from having a skewed sense of self-worth (Criterion 5). They expect they will be taken care of and get upset or angry when this doesn’t happen. For instance, they might think they don’t have to wait in queue and that other people should put their needs ahead of everyone else’s. They then get angry when other people don’t help them with “their very important work.” No matter what it means to other people, they will get what they want or think they need. Like, these people might expect others to be very committed, so they might give them too much work without considering how it will affect their own lives.
  • This feeling of privilege, along with not knowing or caring about other people’s wants and needs, can lead to people taking advantage of others, whether they are aware of it or not (Criterion 6). They only date or become friends with someone if they think that person will help them reach their goals or make them feel better about themselves in some other way. They often take extra things and special rights that they believe are theirs. Some people with narcissistic personality disorder take advantage of other people’s feelings, friendships, intelligence, or money on purpose so they can get what they want.
  • People with narcissistic personality disorder don’t want to or don’t understand what other people want, experience, or feel (Criterion 7). They usually have some cognitive empathy, which means they can see things from someone else’s point of view, but not much emotional empathy, which means they can’t actually feel what someone else is feeling. Some people may not realize how hurtful their words can be.
  • When needs, wants, or feelings are seen as signs of weakness or fear, people are less likely to care about them. People who are close to someone with narcissistic personality disorder often feel emotionally cold and uninterested in them back. These people are often jealous of other people or think that other people are jealous of them (Criterion 8).
  • They might feel bad about other people’s accomplishments or goods because they think they deserve those things more. They may severely undervalue the work of others, especially if those people have already been recognized or praised for their efforts. These people act cocky and haughty, and they often have snobbish, condescending, or condescending attitudes (Criterion 9).

Conclusion

Narcissistic personality disorder is a tough clinical syndrome because it shows up in different ways, is hard to treat, and makes it harder to treat other illnesses that often happen at the same time. Therefore, early diagnosis and seeking professional help on time is crucial. This article provides the diagnostic criteria and features for narcissistic personality disorder, which can facilitate the identification of the disorder’s evident symptoms.

References

  • American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (2022). Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association.
  • Guttman, S. A., & with the Assistance of Irene Kagan Guttman. (1987). Robert Waelder on psychoanalytic technique: Five lectures. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 56(1), 1-67.https://doi.org/10.1080/21674086.1987.11927165
  • Kacel, E. L., Ennis, N., & Pereira, D. B. (2017). Narcissistic personality disorder in clinical health psychology practice: Case studies of comorbid psychological distress and life-limiting illness. Behavioral Medicine, 43(3), 156-164. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2017.1301875
  • Kirsner, D. (2007). Saving psychoanalysts: Ernest Jones and the Isakowers. Psychoanalysis and History, 9(1), 83-91.https://doi.org/10.3366/pah.2007.9.1.83
  • Mitra P, Torrico TJ, Fluyau D. Narcissistic Personality Disorder. [Updated 2024 Mar 1]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556001/
  • Northcote, H. (1929). Havelock Ellis’s studies. The Eugenics Review, 21(3), 237. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2984869/
  • Schmidt, A. (2019). Comparison of Kernberg’s and Kohut’s Theory of Narcissistic Personality Disorder. Turk PsikiyatriDergisi, 30(2).https://doi.org/10.5080/u23484
  • Van Haute, P., &Westerink, H. (2016). Sexuality and its object in Freud’s 1905 edition of Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 97(3), 563-589.https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-8315.12480
Categories
Current Affairs

The Establishment: A Pakistani Archetype

Written by Abdullah Qureshi

“The power of a popular delusion lies in its ability to tap into the deepest fears, desires, and insecurities of a society, offering a false sense of security or hope in the face of uncertainty.”

Charles Mackay (1832)

Over the course of Pakistan’s history, many institutions have been critiqued. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto laid much of the blame on bureaucratic corruption. As soon as Bhutto took power, he fired 1,300 civil servants without a hearing. This is testament to his disdain for the CSP cadre (Ansari & Bajwa, 2019).

Then, the Shareef brothers have at multiple times put the blame on impartial judicial processes. More recently, Imran Khan (and much of the military presidents) blamed politicians for Pakistan’s dire economic straits.

Many of these critiques are fair.

However, there is one institution, universally lambasted since the beginning of this country.

The establishment.

The Evergreen Villain

The establishment is considered to be the ultimate boogieman. It is an organization which topples powerful governments, controls politics from the barracks and eats up all the resources. Politicians seem to fear the establishment. Those who seem to go against their plans are ousted from office on bogus charges. Worse, they are often exiled and some are killed.

Here are some questions for people who prop up this image of ‘the establishment’:

Do the cases against politicians hold merit?

If the person you oppose was charged with a similar crime, would it still be as unbelievable?

Do you believe the establishment should be neutral?

Has your ‘political favorite’ committed acts that undermine the security of your country?

Is the government machinery free of corruption, in general?

If you genuinely take the time to answer these questions you will realize one very important thing.

Human beings are biased. According to Lawrence Kohlberg (1963), a renowned developmental psychologist, humans start adhering to a moral view of the world, fairly early in their lives. By the early adolescence, they start developing the conventional morality. They subscribe to societal norms because they allow them to function. This social teaching predisposes us to have certain biases.

It is very easy to stay at the conventional stage. It is very easy to label things as ‘good’ or ‘bad’. In fact, doing so would allow you to stall cognitive dissonance for a long time.

Until, you are forced to encounter reality.

The reason why the ‘establishment’ is the villain, is because it is easy to consider them so.

If we accept that the establishment is to blame for everything, we allow ourselves freedom to not think.

Why would anyone want to think about their own sins? Sins that they can be held accountable for.

The Establishment vs the Innocents

Often in Pakistan, when someone talks about the establishment, they refer to the military. They think back to the 3 decades of military regimes in Pakistan’s history. There is no question that such breaks in democracy do make governance difficult.

However, is it not true that political actors have played a fair share in impulsive decision-making? Is it not true that counterproductive policies, like the creation of the Federal Security Force in the 1970s, did more harm than good?

A sitting prime minister decided to head to the streets because a new army chief was being instated. If this is the regular behavior of a prime minister, many political idiocies can be justified.

One also has to wonder whether prime ministers are afforded license to kill. If not, then how can anyone justify a Prime Minister’s orders to stop a plane in mid air, carrying the chief of the army?

While the prime minister is the top official, he is not allowed to have someone killed. Just letting you know, in case we have forgotten basic values at this point.

Philosophical Suicide of the Intellectuals

More educated and aware journalists and academics also talk about the role of the judiciary and/or the bureaucracy. However, in some ways, they commit philosophical suicide when they still use the word ‘the establishment’.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis argues that the language we speak determines our experience (Sapir, 1836). There is also the psychological concept of self-fulfilling prophecies. If you keep repeating to yourself that something will happen, that something eventually does happen.

‘The establishment’, has unfortunately become a part of our language. We have accepted the complete dominance of one institution. The establishment has been the boogieman for too long a time.

Reality Check

To find a solution to the political instability in Pakistan, it is important to break the archetype of the establishment. Are we sure that civilian governments have delivered what was required of them? Are we sure that the red tape in the bureaucracy is justified? Are we sure that the judiciary is impartial?

Statistics point towards one single answer: no.

In 2023, Transparency International Pakistan (TIP) conducted a National Corruption Perception Survey (NCPS). The results are very telling.

According to the National Corruption Perception Survey 2023, the police are still the most corrupt department (30%). Tendering and Contracting came in at number two (16%), and the judiciary came in at number three (13%).

None of these sectors consider themselves part of the establishment. 

Yet, they are infringing upon the boundaries of their professions which are specifically meant for justice.

Has the establishment pointed a gun to their heads and made them glutton down resources?

It Wasn’t Me, It Was Them!

The establishment is the altar where we wash our sins as a nation. It does not exist.

Political power does. The prime minister does, and so do the other two heads of the three arms of the state. Military influence on governance is undeniable. As undeniable as the forfeiture of responsibility demonstrated by officials involved in corruption.

By assigning the establishment the responsibility of corruption, poor governance, we allow many people to be free of accountability. For they too blame the establishment on one hand, and slacken their own responsibilities with the other. Sadly, the very beneficiaries of the status quo lambast those who they consider more powerful than them.

The Way Forward

Politicians and officials cannot remain within conventional morality. They might blame others for the debacles we are in, but they did choose to be in this position. Hence, we cannot blame the establishment.

We can only blame ourselves.

However, I am not optimistic about the people of Pakistan relinquishing their archetype of the establishment. As a practicing clinical psychologist, I believe we as people can improve. Warped beliefs are difficult to treat.

References

  • Ansari, S. H., & Bajwa, F. (2019). HIGHER BUREAUCRACY IN PAKISTAN: AN HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF PRAISE AND BLAME. ISSRA Papers, 11(I), 73-96
  • Kohlberg, L. (1963). Moral development and identification.
  • Mackay, C. (1932). Extraordinary popular delusions and the madness of crowds. Noonday Press. 
  • Sapir, E. (1836). Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis.
Categories
Psychiatric Disorders

Diagnostic Features of Language Disorder

Written by Najwa Bashir

Language Disorder

Language disorder is characterized by problems with vocabulary understanding and sentence structure, which lead to deficits in language learning and use. These problems can be noticed when sending and receiving information in spoken, written, and sign language.

Symptoms may include having a smaller or more limited vocabulary than would be expected for their age or not being able to put words together in a way that follows appropriate language rules. The individual’s speaking skills are drastically below what is normally expected for their age and level of growth, which causes a lot of problems in areas like social relationships and schoolwork. The signs must have started when the person was still developing.

Unfortunately, these issues usually last into adults, and receptive language problems are more likely to have a worse outcome than active language problems. Language disorders affect about 10 to 15 percent of kids younger than 3 years old, and boys are much more likely to have them than girls (Wilson &Scarpa, 2017).

Having a language disorder can make it hard to understand and/or use spoken, written, and other kinds of language. The form, meaning, or purpose of language may be difficult for students who have a language disorder. Disorders that affect how the brain processes language knowledge are called language disorders or language disabilities.

For a language student, the most common problems may be with grammar (syntax or morphology), meaning, or other parts of language. These issues could be receptive, like not being able to understand words well, or vocal, like having trouble making sounds, or a mix of the two. Learners with language disorders may have trouble with both spoken and writing words. It can be hard for someone to find the right words and make clear lines when they talk. This is called a language disorder. It can also be hard to understand what someone else is saying. A child might have trouble understanding what other people are saying or putting their thoughts into words, or maybe both.

One can see that a child has a very limited language and that his words are short, wrong, and missing parts. The child might not be able to keep up with his friends as they talk and joke around. He might miss the jokes. He might also only use two words at a time and have trouble answering even easy questions. It’s important to know the difference between a language disorder and a hearing or speech disorder.

Most of the time, kids with language problems don’t have any trouble hearing or writing words. The hard part for them is learning and using the rules of words, like spelling. They are not just “late talkers.” If they do not get help, their speech problems will get worse, which could cause mental problems and trouble in school (Bansal, 2019).

Diagnostic Criteria for Language Disorder

According to APA (2022), the following criteria needs to be met to be diagnosed with language disorder:

  1. Inability to learn and use language over time in any form (spoken, written, sign language, or other) because of problems with understanding or producing it, such as:
    – Less understanding and use of words.
    – Poor sentence structure (not being able to use grammar and morphology rules to put words and word ends together to make sentences).
    – Having trouble with discourse means not being able to use words and put sentences together to talk, explain, or discuss a subject or set of events.
  2. Language skills are significantly and quantifiably lower than what would be expected for their age, which makes it hard for them to communicate effectively, make friends, do well in school, or do well at work, either alone or in combination. 
  3. The signs start in the early stages of growth.
  4. The problems arenot caused by hearing or other sensory loss, motor failure, or another medical or neurological issue. They also don’t make more sense if you think about intellectual disability or global developmental delay.

Diagnostic Features of Language Disorder

According to DSM 5 TR (APA, 2022), the following are the diagnostic features of language disorder:

  1. Trouble learning and using language due to having trouble understanding or producing words, grammar, sentence structure, and conversation. These language problems can be heard or seen when people talk, write, or use sign language. Both receptive and expressive skills are needed to learn and use a language. The latter is the ability to send messages through speech, body language, or vocalizations while the former is the ability to receive and understand language messages. Both language skills need to be tested because they can be different in how hard they are.
  2. People with language disorders often have problems with their words and spelling, which makes it harder for them to communicate. The child is likely to be late in starting to say words and phrases. His or her vocabulary is smaller and less varied than predicted, and sentences are shorter and less complicated, with a lot of grammar mistakes in the past tense. People often don’t give kids enough credit for their language learning problems because they may be good at using context to figure out what something means.
  3. Having trouble finding words, giving vocal definitions, or understanding synonyms, words with more than one meaning, or word play that is acceptable for their age and society. For people who have trouble remembering new words and sentences, it can be hard to follow instructions that get longer, practice long strings of spoken information (like a phone number or a shopping list), and remember new sound sequences, which may be valuable for learning new words.
  4. Trouble giving enough information about the main events and telling a story that makes sense. The language problem shows up as skills that are significantly and quantitatively below what is expected for the person’s age. It also gets in the way of school success, job performance, effective conversation, or socializing (Criterion B).

An individual is diagnosed with a language disorder after looking at their past, being directly observed by a clinician in various settings (such as home, school, or work), and their scores on standardized language tests that can help determine how severe the disorder is (APA, 2022).

Effects of Language Disorder on Daily Life

Many experts and members of the public still don’t know much about language disorder and its effects on children’s daily lives, even though it affects many areas of their lives (Lyons, 2021).

McGregor (2020) showed that these kids have a lot of problems that could make it hard for them to do well in school. They are six times more likely to have reading disabilities, six times more likely to have spelling problems, four times more likely to have math problems, and twelve times more likely to have all three problems. She also said that these kids were more likely to have problems in their mental and social lives. For example, they are six times more likely to have clinical anxiety and three times more likely to have clinical depression. Girls are three times more likely to be sexually abused, boys were four times more likely to act badly towards others, and adults were twice as likely to be unemployed for more than a year as other adults.

Conclusion

The article sheds light on the diagnostic features of language disorder. Considering the alarming consequences of the language disorder, it is important to identify its signs and seek professional aid on time in order to avoid the aforementioned struggles in the individuals’ academic and social life.

References

  • American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (2022). Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association.
  • Bansal, S. K. (2019). A Study on Language Disorders in Learners. Research gate. Available from:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338117828_A_Study_on_Language_Disorders_in_Learners
  • Lyons, R. (2021). Impact of language disorders on children’s everyday lives from 4 to 13 years: Commentary on Le, Mensah, Eadie, McKean, Schiberras, Bavin, Reilly and Gold (2020). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 62(12), 1485-1487. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13391
  • McGregor, K. K. (2020). How we fail children with developmental language disorder. Language, speech, and hearing services in schools, 51(4), 981-992.https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_LSHSS-20-00003
  • Wilson, L. C., &Scarpa, A. (2017). Child and Adolescent Psychopathology ☆. Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.06368-9 
Categories
Uncategorized

Introduction to IQ

By Najwa Bashir

Being intelligent is defined as having the ability to think, learn well, understand complex ideas, and adapt to one’s surroundings. Therefore, it is reasonable to consider intelligence to be a general ability that influences performance on a range of cognitive tasks.

The intelligence quotient, or IQ, is a measure of a person’s intelligence in proportion to peers of a similar age.

IQ is one of the most heritable psychological traits, and the results of a modern IQ test can be used to predict a variety of life outcomes, such as longevity, good health, and even happiness, as well as success in the job and in school (Gottfredson, 1998 as cited in Matzel& Sauce, 2017).

Animals differ greatly from one another in this ability, yet many species share a “general cognitive ability” that affects how well they perform on a wide range of cognitive activities (Matzel& Sauce, 2017). Humans and even animals are categorized as smart or dumb on the basis of their IQ scores.

But where did IQ originate from and how to measure it?

The History of IQ Testing

William Stern, a German psychologist, came up with the word “IQ,” which stands for Intelligenz-Quotient. A person’s IQ was determined by taking one of many standardized tests that are given by psychologists in order to gauge their level of intellect. Initially, scientists doubted that it was possible to evaluate human intellect with any degree of accuracy.

The first IQ test was developed very recently, despite the fact that intelligence has always needed to be measured.

In 1904, French government officials hired psychologist Alfred Binet to help them identify and support these kids by helping them identify which students were most likely to have difficulties in the classroom. Education through primary school was required in France. Binet asked a colleague, Theodore Simon, to help him create an exam with questions on life skills like problem solving, attention to detail, and recall that the children were not taught in school.

The now-classic idea of mental age originated from the observation that some youngsters could respond to questions that were beyond the level of their age group. Binet and Simon developed the Binet-Simon Scale, the original standardized IQ test. The Binet-Simon scale was adapted by Stanford University psychologist Lewis Terman in 1916 for use with the broader American population.

The modified Binet-Simon Scale gained popularity fast and was recognized as the official intelligence exam in the United States for several years after being dubbed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. On the so-called Stanford-Binet, an individual’s test score is represented by a single number known as their “intelligence quotient,” or “IQ” (Hally, 2015).

Measuring IQ

Formula

William Stern is most known for creating the IQ formula, according to most psychologists, even those who study human intellect (Kovacs &Pléh, 2023).Stern’s concept of the intelligence quotient (IQ) modified Binet’s calculation of the ratio between the gap between mental age (Intelligenzalter) and chronological age.

Since IQ is “independent of the absolute magnitude of chronological age,” the resulting quotient, rather than the original difference score, proved to be a more trustworthy indicator of growth when compared to peers.

Stern so states that the formula is mental quotient ~ mental age ÷ chronological age. For children who are just beginning to function at their normal level, the value is 1, for advanced children, it is greater than unity, and for mentally retarded children, it is a proper fraction (Stern 1914, p. 42 as cited in Kovacs & Pléh, 2023).

In other instances, the term “intellectual quotient” (IQ) is described as the ratio of mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA) multiplied by 100. With respect to this formula, in order for IQ to stay constant, MA and CA need to increase with time (Goddard, 2012).

IQ = MA/CA × 100

Those individuals who have IQ scores less than 70 are usually diagnosed with intellectual disability

Intelligence Tests

Other ways of measuring IQ include standardized tests such as Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Wide Range Achievement Test, and National Adult Reading Test (Subramaniapillai et al., 2021) in addition to previously mentioned Binet-Simon Scale.

Depending on the test used, an individual’s IQ can be assessed by looking at their reading comprehension, abstract reasoning, spelling, arithmetic problem solving, and/or pronunciation of a set of words varying in complexity (Subramaniapillai et al., 2021).

For example, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale III (WAIS-III) (The Psychological Corporation, 1997; Wechsler, 1997 as cited in Ganuthula& Sinha, 2019), the most commonly used IQ test, assesses a person’s performance on four intellectual abilities: working memory, verbal comprehension, processing speed, and perceptual organization (Wechsler, 1997 as cited in Ganuthula& Sinha, 2019).

Each of the four mental skills is covered by a set of thirteen different activities. Each of these activities has a certain amount of items that go towards the final score (Ganuthula& Sinha, 2019).

The Wide-Range Achievement Test (WRAT) was developed in the 1930s by psychologist Joseph Jastak and was first made operational in 1946. WRAT 4, the most recent edition, is intended for use with people between the ages of 5 and 94. The WRAT 4 consists of four subtests: arithmetic calculation, phrase comprehension, spelling, and word reading. The reading and sentence comprehension exams must be given individually, while the spelling and arithmetic calculation exams can be given individually or in small groups (Robertson, 2010).

The second edition of the National Adult Reading Test (NART) measures premorbid intellectual performance. For adults aged 20 to 70, the most recent version (1991) underwent a re-standardization. The NART is an untimed test made up of fifty words spoken phonemically differently. Students are expected to read aloud each word as it is delivered one at a time. (Venegas & Clark, 2011).

It is currently claimed that tests of intelligence evaluate a variety of cognitive skills as opposed to the more ethereal notion of intelligence. Tests of intelligence are believed to gauge a person’s aptitude for particular tasks. The argument over whether intelligence tests are helpful in general and whether they measure IQ in particular is still ongoing, despite the suggestion that they do so since they are standardized, valid, and trustworthy (Kaufman, 1994 as cited in Goddard, 2012).

Factors Influencing IQ

However, it is crucial to remember that IQ levels are fluid and subject to change throughout time. While some experts contend that a person’s intellect remains mostly constant throughout their lives, others counter that IQ levels may be raised by taking into account variables like education, upbringing, and life events.

Empirical evidence have shown that numerous environmental variables, including a child’s residency, physical activity, family income, parents’ work, and education, have a significant impact on the child’s IQ (Makharia et al., 2016).

IQ has been extensively studied with academic performance. Studies have shown that IQ and academic performance can be impacted by a number of variables, including family size, school type, diet, education, socioeconomic position, age, and gender (Ejekwu et al., 2012; Jaeger, 2008 as cited in Akubuilo et al., 2020).

Large family sizes, public school attendance, and poor socioeconomic status all have a negative impact on IQ and academic achievement. Therefore, in order to increase intelligence and academic performance, environmental interventions are required to reduce large family sizes (i.e., more than four children) and enhance the socioeconomic position of families (Akubuilo et al., 2020).

In a nutshell, IQ is a metric for intellectual capacity that is based on standardized examinations intended to evaluate cognitive ability and is subject to a variety of factors. While IQ tests can be a useful tool for determining an individual’s strengths and limitations in terms of cognition, it is crucial to keep in mind that intelligence is a complicated concept with many facets that cannot be adequately represented by a single score.

References

  • Akubuilo, U. C., Iloh, K. K., Onu, J. U., Ayuk, A. C., Ubesie, A. C., &Ikefuna, A. N. (2020). Academic performance and intelligence quotient of primary school children in Enugu. Pan African Medical Journal, 36(1). https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2020.36.129.22901
  • Ganuthula, V. R. R., & Sinha, S. (2019). The looking glass for intelligence quotient tests: the interplay of motivation, cognitive functioning, and affect. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 459731.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02857
  • Goddard, N. (2012). Psychology. Core Psychiatry, 63–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-7020-3397-1.00005-7 
  • Hally, T. J. (2015). A Brief History of IQ Tests. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275354727_A_Brief_History_of_IQ_Test
  • Kovacs, K., &Pléh, C. (2023). William Stern: The Relevance of His Program of ‘Differential Psychology’for Contemporary Intelligence Measurement and Research. Journal of Intelligence, 11(3), 41.https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11030041
  • Makharia, A., Nagarajan, A., Mishra, A., Peddisetty, S., Chahal, D., & Singh, Y. (2016). Effect of environmental factors on intelligence quotient of children. Industrial psychiatry journal, 25(2), 189-194. https://doi.org/10.4103/ipj.ipj_52_16
  • Matzel, L. D., & Sauce, B. (2017). IQ. In Springer eBooks (pp. 1–9). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_1080-1
  • Robertson, G. J. (2010). Wide‐range achievement test. The Corsini encyclopedia of psychology, 1-2.https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy1038
  • Subramaniapillai, S., Almey, A., Rajah, M. N., & Einstein, G. (2021). Sex and gender differences in cognitive and brain reserve: Implications for Alzheimer’s disease in women. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 60, 100879.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2020.100879
  • Venegas, J., & Clark, E. (2011). National Adult Reading Test. In Springer eBooks (p. 1705). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1467
Categories
Current Affairs

Psychosocial Analysis of Mob-Lynching in Pakistan

By Abdullah Qureshi

Recently, a 40 year old male tourist was lynched by a mob after allegations of blasphemy. According to reports, the hotel management had discovered a few burnt pages of the Quran from the victim’s room. Following this, the subject was detained by the police for investigation. During the ordeal, announcers of some mosques disclosed the information of where the subject was held. A mob gathered and demanded the police entry into the police station. When it was refused, the mob broke in, found the subject in the servants’ quarters and subsequently killed him.

Lynchings are regrettably becoming more common in Pakistan. In May (2024) a Christian man was lynched in Sargodha. The failure of the state to provide some protection to these victims is striking. However, I argue in this article that mob lynching is a product of many psychosocial issues.

Mob lynching has three major facets. The first is cognitive dissonance, wherein an event in the external world clashes with a personal, widely held belief (Festinger, 1962). Secondly, there is group action, unified by certain characteristics or beliefs. The third is use of violence, a product of aggression and the circumstances the group has or is in.

In the following sections, a social model of mob-lynching compiled by Baig and Ahmad (2020) would be used to understand this recent incident. I will look at this model through the psychosocial facets described earlier.

The Psycho-social Model of Mob-Lynching in Pakistan

Baig and Ahmed (2020) argue that there are 4 levels of analysis of mob-lynching. These are:

  • Individual
  • Process
  • Society
  • State

Individual Level

The tourist was lynched by human beings. They were of the locality of Madyan. They had human motifs. Plus, they lynched at an individual level. So, the first level of analysis has to be at the individual level. Baig and Ahmed (2020) discuss that human actions have two categories:

  • Reflective
  • Reflexive

Reflective Actions

The reflective actions are where the character knows ahead of time what he wants to achieve. It could be a means to an end (instrumental). Or it could be an end in itself (value).

Reflexive Actions

The acts that are reflexive do not involve the person thinking ahead of time. Emotional actions are rapid bursts of certain behaviors, like when someone is angry or excited. Another thing is that the character does some things automatically, without giving them much thought.

Psychological Aspect

Swat is inhabited by many people. Religious extremism, while found across the country, is more weaponized in some areas. Since Swat has been a focal point of major security issues, this weaponization is obvious.

Beliefs. When popular beliefs are challenged the result is often emotional distress in many individuals. Groupthink by the members of the mob allows the mob to be cohesive in beliefs.

Circumstances. The staff of the police station refused entry to the mob. However, the mob disregarded this refusal and forcefully entered the establishment. If the culture of the area is permissive of popular beliefs, this allows the group more moral freedom to act. At an individual level, the circumstances allow more autonomy to a mob rather than the actions to one single person.

Violence. After breaking in, the mob forcefully found out the accused blasphemer and murdered him. The community at large did not rally to punish this mob. So, it could be seen that the circumstances were favorable to lynching. Extreme actions thrive in communities with extreme beliefs.

The Process Level

Randal Collins (2012) broke down the process of a mob killing into 4 steps:

  • Find a weak target, preferably one who is emotionally controlled.
  • Aim for an audience that supports a small group of violent artists.
  • Stay far away so that weapons can be fired without having to face the enemy
  • A secret motif that acts like there is no conflict until the very end;

Psychological Aspect

Collins’ model, while insightful, cannot be perfectly mapped to the Madyan lynching. For example, there was no attempt by the mob to mask their intentions of violence. They broke in to the police station and lynched the person fairly quickly.  Thus, the process could be better understood using a psychological framework.

The beliefs of the group along with the precipitating incident dictate the possibility of violence. On the other hand, the circumstances – including the culture, strength of law enforcement and cohesion of a group – affect the intensity of the violence. So, the causal event, beliefs of the mob, and circumstances allow violence. As a result, both the possibility and intensity of the violence increase

The Society Level

Max Weber came to some very interesting conclusions about modernity (Weber 1979; as cited in Baig & Ahmed, 2020). Weber says that modernity is made up of three main currents: rationalization, disillusionment, and bureaucratization.
In effect, after detention, the police send justice problems to the courts, where they are settled based on “merit.”

Traditional justice, on the other hand, did not have fixed officials to understand and implement it. Most of the time, it happened quickly. When deciding what was fair, people usually looked at the masses of the time. In this way, it was a group effort based on agreement. In these kinds of structures, everyone felt like they had to take part in the process of sentencing and justice.

According to this view, the lynching at Madyan could be viewed as an expression of justice by a traditional society. A traditional society is not simply a conservative society. A traditional society is a pre-modern society that does not follow the rational and bureaucratic model of authority.

So, one could conclude that lynching occurs more when at a societal level, bureaucratic processes are not followed.

Psychological Aspect

The lynching of the 40 year old tourist could be facilitated by the societal traditions. Swat has a conservative culture and the valley is situated in an area which has a tribal history. Located in the province sharing a volatile border with Afghanistan, the place also has had security issues. Indeed, in an earlier historic account, Stein (1942) admitted that the area was deeply tribal.

Unfortunately, these security issues, along with poor socio-economic prowess mean that trust in the state is low.

So, one common assumption that could be inferred is that authorities are not trustworthy. This allows the tribal system of justice to override the legal system. I would argue that mobs gather to build the strength of force to challenge the legal system. The reason, I argue is the erosion of trust in the legal system.

The State Level

Thomas Hobbes (1985, quoted in Baig & Ahmed, 2020) says that the main reason people want peace is because they are afraid of dying. In order to stop this deadly possibility, people make states, which are a single power hub where people can’t use their own. The only valid group that can use violence against people is the state. That’s why Hobbes called the state “a monopolizer of violence in a territory.” This description is at the heart of modern nation-states, and it’s now a part of almost every meaning of politics (Weber, 1979).

Hobbes said that if a state doesn’t take control of violence, people’s lives will become “short, nasty, and brutish.” If there is no government, other people and groups will use violence for their own reasons, which will lead to a society where everyone works together.

Psychological Aspect

For the lynchers at Madyan, the ego ideal seems to be in clash with the state’s procedures. The ego ideal is a complex of ideals that one has (Rosenfeld, 1962). For example, one could say that personal responsibility is the ego-ideal that trumps ideal of state responsibility. It could also be the case that the mob’s ideals were specifically different in the area of religion.

Whatever the case might be, it appears that the ego-ideals of a mob are not in alignment with the state’s ideals. The mob wanted the accused to be dealt with regardless of the legal process. The state, on the other hand, desires to be held responsible for dealing with the accused.

This appears to be a major psychological conflict of the collective mob with the state.

Solving the Issue of Mob Lynching

Mob lynching is a tricky phenomenon. There are multiple people in a mob. Plus, this group of people has an aggressive stance. It is very easy to see examples of how even the writ of the state does not contain collective anger.

So, to deal with the issue of these mass demonstrations of violence, one has to tackle multiple levels. As offered by this essay, corrective action and awareness has to occur at all the levels of analyses:

  • The Individual Level
  • Process Level
  • Society Level
  • State level

I propose that the individual and process levels could be targeted through better engagement between the residents of the area, and the state. If this is done, the locals could trust the authorities more to conduct due process.

To target the society and state levels, opinion-makers could be addressed. They could be briefed about how to behave in a particular situation. The Imams of the mosques could be educated by like-minded religious scholars about due process. Furthermore, they would have to be assured that the state is there to help.

To target the state level is the job of the policy makers and implementers. This would involve maintaining a healthy socioeconomic status and literacy rate so that these incidents could be prevented from the get go.

Conclusion

What happened at Madyan was condemned by many people. The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP) took almost instantaneous notice of this tragedy. Furthermore, Pakistan Ulema Council (PUC) also condemned this attack. This shows that religious and human rights leaders in contact with the state oppose what has happened.

However, I argue that the issue is much deeper. If the socioeconomic and psychosocial conditions of various areas of Pakistan are not improved, distrust of the state will continue to prevail.

References

  • Baig, K. A. S. T., & Ahmad, M. A. (2020). Mob lynching in Pakistan: an integrated conceptual model. Pakistan Social Sciences Review, 4(1).
  • Collins, R. (2012). Entering and leaving the tunnel of violence: Micro-sociological dynamics of emotional entrainment in violent interactions. Current Sociology, 61(2) , pp.132–151.
  • Festinger, L. (1962). Cognitive dissonance. Scientific American, 207(4), 93-106.
  • Hobbes, T. (1985.) Leviathan, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books
  • Stein, A. (1942). From Swat to the Gorges of the Indus. The Geographical Journal, 100(2), 49-56.
  • Rosenfeld, H. (1962). The superego and the ego-ideal. The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 43, 258.
  • Weber, M. (1978). Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. London: Univeresity of California Press.
Categories
Psychiatric Disorders

Diagnostic Features of Intellectual Disability

Written by Najwa Bashir

Generally referred to as intelligence, intellectual functioning encompasses a broad variety of mental abilities, including the capacity for logical thinking, practical intelligence (problem-solving), learning, language skills, and so on. It can take many different forms, including talents, behaviors, ideas, and emotions. Stated differently, the ability to comprehend and engage with reality on a global scale is referred to as intellectual functioning (Lee et al., 2023).

According to American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAID) (Shogren & Turnbull, 2010), intelligence is an all-encompassing mental ability that includes planning, reasoning, problem-solving, abstract thought, understanding complicated concepts, efficient learning, and experience-based learning. A standardized measure of intelligence, specifically an IQ score of less than 70 (two standard deviations below the population mean of 100), has historically been used to define intellectual disability (formerly known as “mental retardation”).

This measure has also historically been used to describe significant deficits in functional and adaptive skills. The capacity to do age-appropriate everyday tasks is a component of adaptive skills. The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) and the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) system are the two classification schemes used in the US for intellectual disability (ID). Both of these methods use the degrees of support required to help an individual reach their maximum potential for personal functioning to determine the severity of ID (Boat et al., 2015).

Intellectual Disability

Intellectual Disability, also referred to as Intellectual Developmental Disorder, is defined as having an IQ of less than 70 and deficits in adaptive behavior or everyday living abilities (such as eating, dressing, communicating, and participating in activities with others). Individuals with intellectual disabilities struggle with complex concepts and learn slowly. Reduced cognitive capacity, or intellectual disability, results in a variation in the rate and efficiency with which an individual learns, retains, and applies new information in comparison to the general population (Shree & Shukla, 2016).

According to DSM-5, Intellectual Disability is a class of developmental disorders marked by deficits of cognitive functions that are linked to learning, adaptive behavior, and skill constraints (Carulla et al., 2011).

Diagnostic Criteria for Intellectual Disability

The DSM-5 TR (APA, 2000) has outlined a specific diagnostic criteria related to Intellectual Disability. The following three criteria needs to be met for individuals to be diagnosed with an Intellectual Disability:

  1. Shortcomings in intellectual abilities – as demonstrated by individual, standardized intelligence tests as well as clinical evaluation – including logical problem-solving, organizing, abstract judgment, scholastic learning, and acquiring knowledge from experience.
  2. Deficiencies in adaptive functioning that lead to a failure to fulfil social and developmental norms about social responsibility and personal independence.Without continued assistance, the adaptive impairments make it difficult for the person to operate in a variety of settings, including the community, workplace, school, and home, as well as in one or more everyday tasks including social interaction, communication, and independent living.
  3. Intellectual and adaptive deficiencies that appear at the beginning of the developmental stage.

Diagnostic Features of Intellectual Disability

The DSM-5 TR (APA, 2016) lists many diagnostic features of Intellectual Disability. These characteristics consist of the following:

  1. Deficits in general mental abilities
  2. Impairment in day-to-day adaptive functioning relative to peers who are matched for age, gender, and sociocultural background
  3. Onset takes place at the stage of development.

Standardized cognitive tests, standardized neuropsychological tests, and standardized measures of adaptive functioning are used in conjunction with clinical examination to diagnose intellectual developmental disorders.

Testing for intelligence quotient (IQ) and deficiencies in adaptive functioning – a measure of a person’s capacity to manage the typical stresses of daily life – are two ways to assess intellectual functioning.

The requirement to evaluate intellectual functioning using standardized instruments that produce intelligence quotients (IQs) is acknowledged by both DSM-5 and ICD-10. The DSM-5 limits the use of IQ to determine ID, using a threshold of 65–75 (IQ 70± standard error of 5). On the other hand, the ICD-10 recommends an IQ of 70 in order to diagnose ID, and it uses a range of IQs to classify four severity levels: mild (IQ: 50–69), moderate (IQ: 35–49), severe (IQ: 20–34), and profound (IQ <20). The IQ score can be regarded as one of the clinical descriptors that are significant in defining the severity level, although the ICD-11 Working Group argued that severity levels for IDD should be based on a clinical description of the traits of each subcategory. As a result, the ICD-10 guidelines, which rely on IQ to determine the severity levels of ID as well as to diagnose the condition, should be used until ICD-11 is implemented (Kishore et al., 2019).

Furthermore, the DSM-5 TR stipulates that intellectual impairment must also arise throughout the developmental period, which is often understood to be before the age of 18.

Standardized intelligence tests, such the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales or the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), are used to measure intellectual functioning. People who are diagnosed with intellectual impairment usually have an IQ of less than 70, which is regarded as severely below average. It is crucial to remember that adaptive functioning must also be considered in order to diagnose intellectual impairment; IQ levels alone are not sufficient in this regard.

The ability of an individual to autonomously carry out everyday tasks and adjust to novel circumstances is referred to as adaptive functioning. This encompasses interpersonal, communication, self-care, and problem-solving abilities. Adaptive functioning deficits might show themselves as trouble with personal grooming, money management, or social cue interpretation.

Apart from intellectual and adaptive functioning deficiencies, the DSM-5 TR highlights the need of taking into account the cultural background and personal strengths and limitations of the individual undergoing assessment for intellectual impairment. When diagnosing someone, it is important to take into account many factors that may affect their performance on standardized tests, such as cultural differences, poverty, and limited access to education.

It is also critical to acknowledge that intellectual impairment can range in degree from moderate to severe. Even though they can struggle in school or with social skills, people with modest intellectual disabilities are typically able to live freely with assistance. To achieve their everyday requirements, those with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities can need close monitoring and assistance.

Conclusion

In conclusion, deficiencies in intellectual and adaptive functioning that begin throughout the formative stage are among the diagnostic characteristics of intellectual impairment as listed in the DSM-5 TR. When evaluating a patient for intellectual impairment, physicians should take into account the patient’s strengths and limitations, cultural influences, and cognitive and practical functioning. In order to help people with intellectual disabilities realize their full potential and enhance their quality of life, early detection and intervention are essential.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2016). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Text revision.

Boat, T. F., Wu, J. T., & National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2015). Clinical characteristics of intellectual disabilities. In Mental disorders and disabilities among low-income children. National Academies Press (US). Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK332877/

Carulla, L. S., Reed, G. M., Vaez-Azizi, L. M., Cooper, S. A., Leal, R. M., Bertelli, M., …&Saxena, S. (2011). Intellectual developmental disorders: towards a new name, definition and framework for “mental retardation/intellectual disability” in ICD-11. World Psychiatry, 10(3), 175. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2011.tb00045.x

Kishore, M. T., Udipi, G. A., &Seshadri, S. P. (2019). Clinical practice guidelines for assessment and management of intellectual disability. Indian journal of psychiatry, 61(Suppl 2), 194-210. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_507_18

Lee, K., Cascella, M., &Marwaha, R. (2023). Intellectual disability. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547654/

Shogren, K. A., & Turnbull, H. R. (2010). Public policy and outcomes for persons with intellectual disability: extending and expanding the public policy framework of AAIDD’s 11th Edition of Intellectual Disability: Definition, Classification, and Systems of Support. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 48(5), 375-386. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-48.5.375

Shree, A., & Shukla, P. C. (2016). Intellectual Disability: Definition, classification, causes and characteristics. Learning Community-An International Journal of Educational and Social Development, 7(1), 9-20. https://doi.org/10.5958/2231-458X.2016.00002.6

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Uncategorized

Why Terrorists Target Journalists

By Abdullah Qureshi

Recently, it was reported in Khyber District, KPK, that a notable journalist, Mr. Khalil Jibran, was gunned down by armed men. This is not the first time that a journalist was attacked by extremists. In fact, journalists are routinely attacked across the world by various institutions. These institutions are not just unofficial terrorist organizations. Many of them are actual official, governmental bodies. However, to stay relevant to the incident at hand, terrorists targeting journalists is fairly common but paradoxical

Symbiosis

One common thing that both terrorism and journalism usually aim for is publicity for their cause. Journalism is a method of disseminating information to the masses. However, on the other hand, this information could portray extremists in bad frames. So, in essence, terrorism requires journalism to increase its influence. However, journalism has the power to reduce this influence as well.

This paradox is apparent in the relationship between terrorism and journalism. Nevertheless, there is symbiosis in this relationship as both professions can work together. This is usually observed in propaganda.

I would like to quote Peter C. Kratcoski here.

“If one of the elements of terrorism is the wish to obtain publicity for a cause and create propaganda, the media has obviously overreacted in responding to this desire”

Kratcoski (2001)

However, there are scholars who contest this claim. I would argue that this association is simply a product of the key features of terrorism and journalism.

So, if journalists and terrorists could theoretically live happily forever, why are journalists still targeted?

Professional Differences

Journalists are seldom completely independent. They have their biases and beliefs. Terrorists on the other hand, especially in the case of targeted killings, operate within the confines of a particular cause. Usually, this cause has religio-socio-political or environmental underpinnings. The organizations are usually very devoted to the cause. Thus, if they are represented badly, this often results in deadly reactions, as supported by some research (Lopez, 2016).

This point goes against the symbiosis hypothesis stated earlier. It exhibits the power that mass communication has on a population’s knowledge. This ironically poses a direct threat to the extremist whose cause is not supported by journalists.

Let us take a look at some more superficial reasons why terrorists kill journalists.

Publicity

Bad publicity is still publicity. It has many positives to offer. I do not argue that these positives are good in a moral sense. Rather, killing journalists is in itself an indication of some degree of influence. After all, newspapers are going to write about it. This would make the terrorist group appear even more threatening. Thus, if a terrorist organization enjoys the luxury of political influence, it gets away with murder.

One utility of social media is that information could be broadcasted at a very cheap cost. This is one of the reasons why many terrorist organizations are active on social media, whether it be the Islamic State, or the Taliban. So, killing a journalist is in itself a surety for publicity. When digital platforms, much like the one you are on, discuss the news of such a professional killing, people are bound to tune in.

Terror Terror!

Killing journalists produces an atmosphere where terrorism thrives in. If we take the case of Mr. Jibraan, he was a moderately influential figure. He had been the president of a press club for multiple years. So, having the resources to kill such a person generalizes the fear of people in the vicinity. If such an influential person can be shot to death, one could ask, “Who is safe?”

The immediate response of the authorities is often to increase vigilance. Such was the case in the aftermath of Mr. Jibraan’s death. The local police and administrative authorities launched a prompt campaign. This works against the motives of the terrorists. In fact, a strict response to such a killing could pose a major problem for terrorists.

However, one of the benefits of promoting terror is that the targeted community could fall into psychosocial disarray.

Psychological Terror

Terror has deep psychological consequences. Paranoia is one consequence which is particularly damaging. A community which has been struck by a terrorist attack could become suspicious of the people around them. They could become suspicious of the authorities.

This was observed in the recent Khyber incident. While there could be genuine qualms of poor governance in the area, undue suspicion could also be observed. It is reported that people blamed the terror attack on local authorities. It was also reported that many were deeply unsatisfied with the investigation into this killing.

Catastrophization is another psychological error that is relevant. While there are certainly grounds for fearing such an attack, people of the area might overblow the actual situation. For example, Mr. Jibraan’s demise cannot be considered a result of inflation. However, catastrophizing individuals might consider the general suffering of being underprivileged to be part of the terror attack.

Thus, many cognitive biases might prevail in such an environment. These biases have the potential to further polarize the community (Warner, 2013). Consequently, the effects of terror allow terrorists to carry out there activities more autonomously. If we factor in inefficiencies of the local authorities, such nefarious organizations would further deepen these psychological errors.

Conclusion

Terrorism and journalism share many common features. The most common feature, however, is publicity. But where ‘reporting’ parts ways with terrorism is the independence of the journalist. If journalists become independent, they are vulnerable. If their opponents are armed and the security of the country they live in is poor, their independence could easily cost them their lives. Such appears to be the case with Mr. Khalil Jibran’s murder.

References

  • Kratcoski, P. C. (2001). Terrorist victimization: Prevention, control, and recovery. Studies in conflict and terrorism, 24(6), 467-473.
  • Lopez, F. (2016). If Publicity is the Oxygen of Terrorism–Why Do Terrorists Kill Journalists?. Perspectives on terrorism, 10(1), 65-77.
  • Warner, J. (2013). The politics of ‘catastrophization’. In Disaster, Conflict and Society in Crises (pp. 76-94). Routledge.
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Welcome to Psychologus. The only rule here is to have an open mind. We are humans, after all.

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