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Psychosocial Analysis of Mob-Lynching in Pakistan

Post author By M Abdullah Qureshi
Post date June 24, 2024
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By Abdullah Qureshi

Recently, a 40 year old male tourist was lynched by a mob after allegations of blasphemy. According to reports, the hotel management had discovered a few burnt pages of the Quran from the victim’s room. Following this, the subject was detained by the police for investigation. During the ordeal, announcers of some mosques disclosed the information of where the subject was held. A mob gathered and demanded the police entry into the police station. When it was refused, the mob broke in, found the subject in the servants’ quarters and subsequently killed him.

Lynchings are regrettably becoming more common in Pakistan. In May (2024) a Christian man was lynched in Sargodha. The failure of the state to provide some protection to these victims is striking. However, I argue in this article that mob lynching is a product of many psychosocial issues.

Mob lynching has three major facets. The first is cognitive dissonance, wherein an event in the external world clashes with a personal, widely held belief (Festinger, 1962). Secondly, there is group action, unified by certain characteristics or beliefs. The third is use of violence, a product of aggression and the circumstances the group has or is in.

In the following sections, a social model of mob-lynching compiled by Baig and Ahmad (2020) would be used to understand this recent incident. I will look at this model through the psychosocial facets described earlier.

The Psycho-social Model of Mob-Lynching in Pakistan

Baig and Ahmed (2020) argue that there are 4 levels of analysis of mob-lynching. These are:

Individual
Process
Society
State

Individual Level

The tourist was lynched by human beings. They were of the locality of Madyan. They had human motifs. Plus, they lynched at an individual level. So, the first level of analysis has to be at the individual level. Baig and Ahmed (2020) discuss that human actions have two categories:

Reflective
Reflexive

Reflective Actions

The reflective actions are where the character knows ahead of time what he wants to achieve. It could be a means to an end (instrumental). Or it could be an end in itself (value).

Reflexive Actions

The acts that are reflexive do not involve the person thinking ahead of time. Emotional actions are rapid bursts of certain behaviors, like when someone is angry or excited. Another thing is that the character does some things automatically, without giving them much thought.

Psychological Aspect

Swat is inhabited by many people. Religious extremism, while found across the country, is more weaponized in some areas. Since Swat has been a focal point of major security issues, this weaponization is obvious.

Beliefs. When popular beliefs are challenged the result is often emotional distress in many individuals. Groupthink by the members of the mob allows the mob to be cohesive in beliefs.

Circumstances. The staff of the police station refused entry to the mob. However, the mob disregarded this refusal and forcefully entered the establishment. If the culture of the area is permissive of popular beliefs, this allows the group more moral freedom to act. At an individual level, the circumstances allow more autonomy to a mob rather than the actions to one single person.

Violence. After breaking in, the mob forcefully found out the accused blasphemer and murdered him. The community at large did not rally to punish this mob. So, it could be seen that the circumstances were favorable to lynching. Extreme actions thrive in communities with extreme beliefs.

The Process Level

Randal Collins (2012) broke down the process of a mob killing into 4 steps:

Find a weak target, preferably one who is emotionally controlled.
Aim for an audience that supports a small group of violent artists.
Stay far away so that weapons can be fired without having to face the enemy
A secret motif that acts like there is no conflict until the very end;

Psychological Aspect

Collins’ model, while insightful, cannot be perfectly mapped to the Madyan lynching. For example, there was no attempt by the mob to mask their intentions of violence. They broke in to the police station and lynched the person fairly quickly. Thus, the process could be better understood using a psychological framework.

The beliefs of the group along with the precipitating incident dictate the possibility of violence. On the other hand, the circumstances – including the culture, strength of law enforcement and cohesion of a group – affect the intensity of the violence. So, the causal event, beliefs of the mob, and circumstances allow violence. As a result, both the possibility and intensity of the violence increase

The Society Level

Max Weber came to some very interesting conclusions about modernity (Weber 1979; as cited in Baig & Ahmed, 2020). Weber says that modernity is made up of three main currents: rationalization, disillusionment, and bureaucratization.
In effect, after detention, the police send justice problems to the courts, where they are settled based on “merit.”

Traditional justice, on the other hand, did not have fixed officials to understand and implement it. Most of the time, it happened quickly. When deciding what was fair, people usually looked at the masses of the time. In this way, it was a group effort based on agreement. In these kinds of structures, everyone felt like they had to take part in the process of sentencing and justice.

According to this view, the lynching at Madyan could be viewed as an expression of justice by a traditional society. A traditional society is not simply a conservative society. A traditional society is a pre-modern society that does not follow the rational and bureaucratic model of authority.

So, one could conclude that lynching occurs more when at a societal level, bureaucratic processes are not followed.

Psychological Aspect

The lynching of the 40 year old tourist could be facilitated by the societal traditions. Swat has a conservative culture and the valley is situated in an area which has a tribal history. Located in the province sharing a volatile border with Afghanistan, the place also has had security issues. Indeed, in an earlier historic account, Stein (1942) admitted that the area was deeply tribal.

Unfortunately, these security issues, along with poor socio-economic prowess mean that trust in the state is low.

So, one common assumption that could be inferred is that authorities are not trustworthy. This allows the tribal system of justice to override the legal system. I would argue that mobs gather to build the strength of force to challenge the legal system. The reason, I argue is the erosion of trust in the legal system.

The State Level

Thomas Hobbes (1985, quoted in Baig & Ahmed, 2020) says that the main reason people want peace is because they are afraid of dying. In order to stop this deadly possibility, people make states, which are a single power hub where people can’t use their own. The only valid group that can use violence against people is the state. That’s why Hobbes called the state “a monopolizer of violence in a territory.” This description is at the heart of modern nation-states, and it’s now a part of almost every meaning of politics (Weber, 1979).

Hobbes said that if a state doesn’t take control of violence, people’s lives will become “short, nasty, and brutish.” If there is no government, other people and groups will use violence for their own reasons, which will lead to a society where everyone works together.

Psychological Aspect

For the lynchers at Madyan, the ego ideal seems to be in clash with the state’s procedures. The ego ideal is a complex of ideals that one has (Rosenfeld, 1962). For example, one could say that personal responsibility is the ego-ideal that trumps ideal of state responsibility. It could also be the case that the mob’s ideals were specifically different in the area of religion.

Whatever the case might be, it appears that the ego-ideals of a mob are not in alignment with the state’s ideals. The mob wanted the accused to be dealt with regardless of the legal process. The state, on the other hand, desires to be held responsible for dealing with the accused.

This appears to be a major psychological conflict of the collective mob with the state.

Solving the Issue of Mob Lynching

Mob lynching is a tricky phenomenon. There are multiple people in a mob. Plus, this group of people has an aggressive stance. It is very easy to see examples of how even the writ of the state does not contain collective anger.

So, to deal with the issue of these mass demonstrations of violence, one has to tackle multiple levels. As offered by this essay, corrective action and awareness has to occur at all the levels of analyses:

The Individual Level
Process Level
Society Level
State level

I propose that the individual and process levels could be targeted through better engagement between the residents of the area, and the state. If this is done, the locals could trust the authorities more to conduct due process.

To target the society and state levels, opinion-makers could be addressed. They could be briefed about how to behave in a particular situation. The Imams of the mosques could be educated by like-minded religious scholars about due process. Furthermore, they would have to be assured that the state is there to help.

To target the state level is the job of the policy makers and implementers. This would involve maintaining a healthy socioeconomic status and literacy rate so that these incidents could be prevented from the get go.

Conclusion

What happened at Madyan was condemned by many people. The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP) took almost instantaneous notice of this tragedy. Furthermore, Pakistan Ulema Council (PUC) also condemned this attack. This shows that religious and human rights leaders in contact with the state oppose what has happened.

However, I argue that the issue is much deeper. If the socioeconomic and psychosocial conditions of various areas of Pakistan are not improved, distrust of the state will continue to prevail.

References

Baig, K. A. S. T., & Ahmad, M. A. (2020). Mob lynching in Pakistan: an integrated conceptual model. Pakistan Social Sciences Review, 4(1).
Collins, R. (2012). Entering and leaving the tunnel of violence: Micro-sociological dynamics of emotional entrainment in violent interactions. Current Sociology, 61(2) , pp.132–151.
Festinger, L. (1962). Cognitive dissonance. Scientific American, 207(4), 93-106.
Hobbes, T. (1985.) Leviathan, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books
Stein, A. (1942). From Swat to the Gorges of the Indus. The Geographical Journal, 100(2), 49-56.
Rosenfeld, H. (1962). The superego and the ego-ideal. The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 43, 258.
Weber, M. (1978). Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. London: Univeresity of California Press.

Tags Blasphemy, Madyan, Mob Lynching, Pakistan, Psychological problems, Swat

Psychiatric Disorders

Diagnostic Features of Intellectual Disability

Post author By Najwa Bashir
Post date June 22, 2024
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Written by Najwa Bashir

Generally referred to as intelligence, intellectual functioning encompasses a broad variety of mental abilities, including the capacity for logical thinking, practical intelligence (problem-solving), learning, language skills, and so on. It can take many different forms, including talents, behaviors, ideas, and emotions. Stated differently, the ability to comprehend and engage with reality on a global scale is referred to as intellectual functioning (Lee et al., 2023).

According to American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAID) (Shogren & Turnbull, 2010), intelligence is an all-encompassing mental ability that includes planning, reasoning, problem-solving, abstract thought, understanding complicated concepts, efficient learning, and experience-based learning. A standardized measure of intelligence, specifically an IQ score of less than 70 (two standard deviations below the population mean of 100), has historically been used to define intellectual disability (formerly known as “mental retardation”).

This measure has also historically been used to describe significant deficits in functional and adaptive skills. The capacity to do age-appropriate everyday tasks is a component of adaptive skills. The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) and the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) system are the two classification schemes used in the US for intellectual disability (ID). Both of these methods use the degrees of support required to help an individual reach their maximum potential for personal functioning to determine the severity of ID (Boat et al., 2015).

Intellectual Disability

Intellectual Disability, also referred to as Intellectual Developmental Disorder, is defined as having an IQ of less than 70 and deficits in adaptive behavior or everyday living abilities (such as eating, dressing, communicating, and participating in activities with others). Individuals with intellectual disabilities struggle with complex concepts and learn slowly. Reduced cognitive capacity, or intellectual disability, results in a variation in the rate and efficiency with which an individual learns, retains, and applies new information in comparison to the general population (Shree & Shukla, 2016).

According to DSM-5, Intellectual Disability is a class of developmental disorders marked by deficits of cognitive functions that are linked to learning, adaptive behavior, and skill constraints (Carulla et al., 2011).

Diagnostic Criteria for Intellectual Disability

The DSM-5 TR (APA, 2000) has outlined a specific diagnostic criteria related to Intellectual Disability. The following three criteria needs to be met for individuals to be diagnosed with an Intellectual Disability:

Shortcomings in intellectual abilities – as demonstrated by individual, standardized intelligence tests as well as clinical evaluation – including logical problem-solving, organizing, abstract judgment, scholastic learning, and acquiring knowledge from experience.

Deficiencies in adaptive functioning that lead to a failure to fulfil social and developmental norms about social responsibility and personal independence.Without continued assistance, the adaptive impairments make it difficult for the person to operate in a variety of settings, including the community, workplace, school, and home, as well as in one or more everyday tasks including social interaction, communication, and independent living.

Intellectual and adaptive deficiencies that appear at the beginning of the developmental stage.

Diagnostic Features of Intellectual Disability

The DSM-5 TR (APA, 2016) lists many diagnostic features of Intellectual Disability. These characteristics consist of the following:

Deficits in general mental abilities

Impairment in day-to-day adaptive functioning relative to peers who are matched for age, gender, and sociocultural background

Onset takes place at the stage of development.

Standardized cognitive tests, standardized neuropsychological tests, and standardized measures of adaptive functioning are used in conjunction with clinical examination to diagnose intellectual developmental disorders.

Testing for intelligence quotient (IQ) and deficiencies in adaptive functioning – a measure of a person’s capacity to manage the typical stresses of daily life – are two ways to assess intellectual functioning.

The requirement to evaluate intellectual functioning using standardized instruments that produce intelligence quotients (IQs) is acknowledged by both DSM-5 and ICD-10. The DSM-5 limits the use of IQ to determine ID, using a threshold of 65–75 (IQ 70± standard error of 5). On the other hand, the ICD-10 recommends an IQ of 70 in order to diagnose ID, and it uses a range of IQs to classify four severity levels: mild (IQ: 50–69), moderate (IQ: 35–49), severe (IQ: 20–34), and profound (IQ <20). The IQ score can be regarded as one of the clinical descriptors that are significant in defining the severity level, although the ICD-11 Working Group argued that severity levels for IDD should be based on a clinical description of the traits of each subcategory. As a result, the ICD-10 guidelines, which rely on IQ to determine the severity levels of ID as well as to diagnose the condition, should be used until ICD-11 is implemented (Kishore et al., 2019).

Furthermore, the DSM-5 TR stipulates that intellectual impairment must also arise throughout the developmental period, which is often understood to be before the age of 18.

Standardized intelligence tests, such the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales or the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), are used to measure intellectual functioning. People who are diagnosed with intellectual impairment usually have an IQ of less than 70, which is regarded as severely below average. It is crucial to remember that adaptive functioning must also be considered in order to diagnose intellectual impairment; IQ levels alone are not sufficient in this regard.

The ability of an individual to autonomously carry out everyday tasks and adjust to novel circumstances is referred to as adaptive functioning. This encompasses interpersonal, communication, self-care, and problem-solving abilities. Adaptive functioning deficits might show themselves as trouble with personal grooming, money management, or social cue interpretation.

Apart from intellectual and adaptive functioning deficiencies, the DSM-5 TR highlights the need of taking into account the cultural background and personal strengths and limitations of the individual undergoing assessment for intellectual impairment. When diagnosing someone, it is important to take into account many factors that may affect their performance on standardized tests, such as cultural differences, poverty, and limited access to education.

It is also critical to acknowledge that intellectual impairment can range in degree from moderate to severe. Even though they can struggle in school or with social skills, people with modest intellectual disabilities are typically able to live freely with assistance. To achieve their everyday requirements, those with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities can need close monitoring and assistance.

Conclusion

In conclusion, deficiencies in intellectual and adaptive functioning that begin throughout the formative stage are among the diagnostic characteristics of intellectual impairment as listed in the DSM-5 TR. When evaluating a patient for intellectual impairment, physicians should take into account the patient’s strengths and limitations, cultural influences, and cognitive and practical functioning. In order to help people with intellectual disabilities realize their full potential and enhance their quality of life, early detection and intervention are essential.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2016). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Text revision.

Boat, T. F., Wu, J. T., & National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2015). Clinical characteristics of intellectual disabilities. In Mental disorders and disabilities among low-income children. National Academies Press (US). Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK332877/

Carulla, L. S., Reed, G. M., Vaez-Azizi, L. M., Cooper, S. A., Leal, R. M., Bertelli, M., …&Saxena, S. (2011). Intellectual developmental disorders: towards a new name, definition and framework for “mental retardation/intellectual disability” in ICD-11. World Psychiatry, 10(3), 175. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2011.tb00045.x

Kishore, M. T., Udipi, G. A., &Seshadri, S. P. (2019). Clinical practice guidelines for assessment and management of intellectual disability. Indian journal of psychiatry, 61(Suppl 2), 194-210. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_507_18

Lee, K., Cascella, M., &Marwaha, R. (2023). Intellectual disability. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547654/

Shogren, K. A., & Turnbull, H. R. (2010). Public policy and outcomes for persons with intellectual disability: extending and expanding the public policy framework of AAIDD’s 11th Edition of Intellectual Disability: Definition, Classification, and Systems of Support. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 48(5), 375-386. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-48.5.375

Shree, A., & Shukla, P. C. (2016). Intellectual Disability: Definition, classification, causes and characteristics. Learning Community-An International Journal of Educational and Social Development, 7(1), 9-20. https://doi.org/10.5958/2231-458X.2016.00002.6

Tags Developmental disabilities, Disability, Dsm, DSM-5-TR, IDD, Intellectual disability, Psychiatric disorders, Psychological problems

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Why Terrorists Target Journalists

Post author By M Abdullah Qureshi
Post date June 22, 2024
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By Abdullah Qureshi

Recently, it was reported in Khyber District, KPK, that a notable journalist, Mr. Khalil Jibran, was gunned down by armed men. This is not the first time that a journalist was attacked by extremists. In fact, journalists are routinely attacked across the world by various institutions. These institutions are not just unofficial terrorist organizations. Many of them are actual official, governmental bodies. However, to stay relevant to the incident at hand, terrorists targeting journalists is fairly common but paradoxical

Symbiosis

One common thing that both terrorism and journalism usually aim for is publicity for their cause. Journalism is a method of disseminating information to the masses. However, on the other hand, this information could portray extremists in bad frames. So, in essence, terrorism requires journalism to increase its influence. However, journalism has the power to reduce this influence as well.

This paradox is apparent in the relationship between terrorism and journalism. Nevertheless, there is symbiosis in this relationship as both professions can work together. This is usually observed in propaganda.

I would like to quote Peter C. Kratcoski here.

“If one of the elements of terrorism is the wish to obtain publicity for a cause and create propaganda, the media has obviously overreacted in responding to this desire”
Kratcoski (2001)

However, there are scholars who contest this claim. I would argue that this association is simply a product of the key features of terrorism and journalism.

So, if journalists and terrorists could theoretically live happily forever, why are journalists still targeted?

Professional Differences

Journalists are seldom completely independent. They have their biases and beliefs. Terrorists on the other hand, especially in the case of targeted killings, operate within the confines of a particular cause. Usually, this cause has religio-socio-political or environmental underpinnings. The organizations are usually very devoted to the cause. Thus, if they are represented badly, this often results in deadly reactions, as supported by some research (Lopez, 2016).

This point goes against the symbiosis hypothesis stated earlier. It exhibits the power that mass communication has on a population’s knowledge. This ironically poses a direct threat to the extremist whose cause is not supported by journalists.

Let us take a look at some more superficial reasons why terrorists kill journalists.

Publicity

Bad publicity is still publicity. It has many positives to offer. I do not argue that these positives are good in a moral sense. Rather, killing journalists is in itself an indication of some degree of influence. After all, newspapers are going to write about it. This would make the terrorist group appear even more threatening. Thus, if a terrorist organization enjoys the luxury of political influence, it gets away with murder.

One utility of social media is that information could be broadcasted at a very cheap cost. This is one of the reasons why many terrorist organizations are active on social media, whether it be the Islamic State, or the Taliban. So, killing a journalist is in itself a surety for publicity. When digital platforms, much like the one you are on, discuss the news of such a professional killing, people are bound to tune in.

Terror Terror!

Killing journalists produces an atmosphere where terrorism thrives in. If we take the case of Mr. Jibraan, he was a moderately influential figure. He had been the president of a press club for multiple years. So, having the resources to kill such a person generalizes the fear of people in the vicinity. If such an influential person can be shot to death, one could ask, “Who is safe?”

The immediate response of the authorities is often to increase vigilance. Such was the case in the aftermath of Mr. Jibraan’s death. The local police and administrative authorities launched a prompt campaign. This works against the motives of the terrorists. In fact, a strict response to such a killing could pose a major problem for terrorists.

However, one of the benefits of promoting terror is that the targeted community could fall into psychosocial disarray.

Psychological Terror

Terror has deep psychological consequences. Paranoia is one consequence which is particularly damaging. A community which has been struck by a terrorist attack could become suspicious of the people around them. They could become suspicious of the authorities.

This was observed in the recent Khyber incident. While there could be genuine qualms of poor governance in the area, undue suspicion could also be observed. It is reported that people blamed the terror attack on local authorities. It was also reported that many were deeply unsatisfied with the investigation into this killing.

Catastrophization is another psychological error that is relevant. While there are certainly grounds for fearing such an attack, people of the area might overblow the actual situation. For example, Mr. Jibraan’s demise cannot be considered a result of inflation. However, catastrophizing individuals might consider the general suffering of being underprivileged to be part of the terror attack.

Thus, many cognitive biases might prevail in such an environment. These biases have the potential to further polarize the community (Warner, 2013). Consequently, the effects of terror allow terrorists to carry out there activities more autonomously. If we factor in inefficiencies of the local authorities, such nefarious organizations would further deepen these psychological errors.

Conclusion

Terrorism and journalism share many common features. The most common feature, however, is publicity. But where ‘reporting’ parts ways with terrorism is the independence of the journalist. If journalists become independent, they are vulnerable. If their opponents are armed and the security of the country they live in is poor, their independence could easily cost them their lives. Such appears to be the case with Mr. Khalil Jibran’s murder.

References

Kratcoski, P. C. (2001). Terrorist victimization: Prevention, control, and recovery. Studies in conflict and terrorism, 24(6), 467-473.
Lopez, F. (2016). If Publicity is the Oxygen of Terrorism–Why Do Terrorists Kill Journalists?. Perspectives on terrorism, 10(1), 65-77.
Warner, J. (2013). The politics of ‘catastrophization’. In Disaster, Conflict and Society in Crises (pp. 76-94). Routledge.

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