Psychology of Gender - Psychologus

Understanding Masculinity: Types, Theories, and Cultural Impacts

1.1 Definition of Masculinity

Masculinity, also referred to as manhood or manliness, is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with boys and men. Unlike biological sex, masculinity is a social construct that varies across cultures and historical periods (Ferrante & Joan, 2008).

Masculinity is often defined by traits and ideas that shape the stereotypical or ideal man, with traditional masculinity being the most recognized stereotype. However, traditional masculinity is not a single trait but a combination of multiple norms that define how men should behave (Mansfield, Addis, & Mahalik, 2003). These norms dictate behavior, attitudes, and roles that men are expected to adopt in different social contexts.

1.2 Types of Masculinity

The idea of multiple masculinities acknowledges that different masculinities exist in relation to various factors, including other men, women, cultural backgrounds, and socio-economic status (Saiwal, 2008). Masculinity is fluid and evolves over time, taking on different meanings depending on historical and cultural contexts (Brod & Kaufman, 1994). In diverse societies like the UK, multiple forms of masculinity coexist, each influenced by varying dynamics and norms.

Kimmel (1994) identified several distinct types of masculinity:

1.2.1 Hegemonic Masculinity

Hegemonic masculinity is the most dominant and culturally valued form of masculinity. It favors qualities such as heterosexuality, whiteness, physical strength, and emotional suppression. This form of masculinity often sets societal expectations for what it means to be a “real man.”

1.2.2 Complicit Masculinity

Men who do not fully embody hegemonic masculinity but still benefit from the patriarchal system without actively challenging it fall under complicit masculinity. These individuals often admire hegemonic traits but do not necessarily exhibit them themselves.

1.2.3 Marginalized Masculinity

Marginalized masculinity refers to men who cannot achieve hegemonic masculinity due to factors like race, sexuality, age, or religion. However, they may still subscribe to traditional masculine norms such as physical strength and aggression.

1.2.4 Subordinate Masculinity

Subordinate masculinity represents men who display characteristics that contradict hegemonic masculinity. These may include emotional expressiveness, physical weakness, or non-traditional gender roles. Gay or effeminate men are often associated with this category.

1.3 Theories of Masculinity

Several theories attempt to define and quantify masculinity. Some of the most influential perspectives include masculinity ideology and masculine gender role stress. According to Pleck, Sonenstein, and Ku (1993), masculinity ideology refers to cultural standards that men are socialized to adopt, while gender role stress highlights the pressure men feel to conform to these standards.

1.3.1 The Four Major Male Standards (Brannon & David, 1976)

Brannon and David (1976) outlined four core masculine standards:

“No sissy stuff” – Men must distance themselves from femininity, avoid emotions, and reject anything perceived as “soft.”
“Be a big wheel” – Men should prioritize achievement, success, and competition.
“Be a sturdy oak” – Men must be resilient, composed, and in control at all times.
“Give ’em hell” – Men should exhibit aggression and dominance to assert their masculinity.

1.3.2 Levant’s Masculine Norms (Levant et al., 1992)

Levant and his colleagues identified specific masculine norms that men are often expected to adhere to, including:

Emotional restriction
Avoidance of femininity
Aggression and toughness
Self-reliance
Prioritizing achievement
Objectifying sex
Homophobia

1.3.3 Mahalik’s Expanded Masculine Norms (Mahalik et al., 2003)

Mahalik and his team further expanded on masculinity by identifying additional norms, such as:

Winning
Emotional control
Primacy of work
Risk-taking
Violence
Heterosexual self-presentation
Playboy behavior
Self-reliance
Power over women

The level of masculinity in a man is often judged by his conformity to these norms. Those who closely align with these traits are perceived as more masculine, whereas those who reject them may be seen as less masculine (Mahalik et al., 2003).

The Impact of Traditional Masculinity

Traditional masculinity is often defined by a blend of these masculine norms, with power and dominance playing a significant role. Beliefs such as “I need to do anything to win” and “I feel weak if I’m not in control” can heavily influence a man’s self-perception and behavior.

While these norms have historically shaped male identities, rigid adherence to them can lead to negative consequences. The struggle to conform to traditional masculinity has been linked to poor mental and physical health outcomes, including stress, anxiety, and even depression (Levant et al., 2009).

Conclusion

Masculinity is a complex and evolving social construct that varies based on cultural, historical, and individual perspectives. While traditional masculinity has long dictated societal expectations for men, emerging theories and perspectives highlight the diverse ways masculinity is expressed. Recognizing multiple masculinities allows for a more inclusive and flexible understanding of what it means to be a man, paving the way for healthier and more authentic male identities.

References

Ferrante, Joan (2008), “Gender and sexualities: with emphasis on gender ideals”, in Ferrante, Joan, ed. (2010-01-01). Sociology: a global perspective (7th ed.). Belmont, California: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 269–272. ISBN9780840032041.

Mansfield, K. M., Addis, M. E. & Mahalik, J. R. (2003) “Why won’t he go to the doctor?”: The psychology of men’s help seeking. International Journal of Men’s Health, 2(2), 93-109.

M. Kimmel, “Masculinity and Homophobia.,” Sage London, vol. H. Brod and M. Kaufman (Eds) Theorizing Masculinities , pp. 119-141, 1994.

B. R. Saiwal, (2008) “Construction And Diagnosis Of Gender,” Sindicate For Gender Mainstreaming, New Delhi, 2008

Mahalik, J. R., Locke, B. D., Ludlow, L. H., Diemer, M. A., Scott, R. P., Gottfried, M., et al. (2003). Development of the conformity to masculine norms inventory. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 4, 3–25.

Brannon, R. (1976). The male sex role: Our culture’s blueprint for manhood, what it’s done for us lately. In D. David & R. Brannon (Eds.), The forty-nine percent majority: The male sex role. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Jr, E.H. & Ferrera, D.L. & Pleck, Joseph. (1992). Men and Masculinities: Scales for Masculinity Ideology and Masculinity-Related Constructs. Sex Roles. 27.

An Introduction to Gender as a Psychological Construct

Gender as a Psychological Construct

At birth, every person possesses innate sex traits, which indicate whether they identify as male, female, or intersex. Gender, on the other hand, is made up of society and is based on the rules, behaviors, and societal roles that people are supposed to play based on their sex.

It is not a casual or ideological phrase to say that gender is a social creation. A lot of people would be happier and less stressed if they did not have to worry about how their gender affected how other people saw them or their ability to reach their goals, or if they did not have to question whether they were living up to the expectations that others had of them because of their sexuality. In all of these ways, gender ideas that are formed by society can be very bad for people.

Difference between Sex and Gender

The terms “sex” and “gender” might confuse most of the people as they are used interchangeably. However, they both are different terms with different meanings.

According to the experts, “sex” refers to the biological group of “male” or “female,” which is shown by differences in genetic makeup and reproductive tissue and function. Men and women, on the other hand, have different cultural, social, and psychological meanings. This is called “gender”. People are born male or female, so “male” and “female” are separate sex categories. “Masculine” and “feminine,” on the other hand, are gender continuums, meaning that everyone has some manly and feminine traits and qualities.

Gender Roles

Besides sex and gender, other terms are used in the same way but are not always clear, such as gender roles. Gender roles are the actions, thoughts, and mental traits that people in a society decide are masculine or feminine. In American society, gender roles are usually thought of in terms of gender stereotypes, which are beliefs and assumptions about how men and women usually act, what they like, and how they behave. The way a person feels about being male or female is called their gender identity. While someone’s sexual preference is how they feel about people of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes, during sexual activity. There are important differences between these terms. We won’t go into each one in length, but it’s important to know that sex, gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation don’t always match up. Someone can be biologically male but identify as female and be drawn to women, or they can have other identities and preferences.

Gender as a Set of Power Relationships

According to some psychologists, “gender” is not just about differences between men and women or how beliefs about gender are shown in social interactions by actions that support those beliefs, it is involved in the social structures that set up power relationships in society as a whole. From this point of view, “gender” refers to a set of power relationships where, without any other information or meanings, being male means authority, status, competence, social power, and influence, and being female means lack of authority, low status, stupidity, and little power and influence. This point of view works well with the idea that gender also shows more good connections with being female (like caring for others) and more bad connections with being male (like being violent). From this point of view, the point is that these traits are not linked to social standing and power in the same way. For psychologists who first notice that gender represents a set of power relationships, they often look at how an interesting behavior (like leadership, marital conflict, or task performance) happens in social structures (like pairs, organizations, and society as a whole) that are gendered.

For instance, a partner might stay in a violent relationship because she does not have the money to leave. Suppose there is domestic strife and maybe even violence when one person has full or partial control of money and resources outside of the family. In that case, that should be taken into account when trying to figure out what keeps the violence going and the relationship going. Realizing how important the dyad’s power structure is could lead to changes; balancing the balance by moving some financial and resource power could actually change the way people act when they are fighting. Also, researchers who have looked into how well organizational systems for reporting sexual harassment work have found that women rarely use these systems to report sexual harassment in places where men hold most of the power. In this situation, fears of revenge are very reasonable and shared by many people. It’s hard to understand why these events aren’t reported more often if you don’t know how power works in groups between men and women.

To sum up, psychologists have found “gender” to be a useful concept in at least three ways: (a) it helps them divide people into male and female groups and study how differences in behavior, performance, and traits are linked to those differences (whether the suggested cause is biological, socialization, or social location); (b) it helps them figure out how gender might relate to differences between men and women; and (c) it helps them figure out how gender shapes the social institutions in which men and women work.

Most people see these three methods as options, and they are often taken separately from each other. One of the most important changes in recent years is that people are becoming more aware that these three methods can work together and be combined.